# Albert Einstein: Wikis

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921
Born 14 March 1879
Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire
Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA
Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA
Citizenship Württemberg/Germany (1879–96)
Stateless (1896–1901)
Switzerland (1901–55)
Austria (1911–12)
Germany (1914–33)
United States (1940–55)[1]
Ethnicity Jewish
Fields Physics
Institutions Swiss Patent Office (Bern)
University of Zurich
Charles University in Prague
ETH Zurich
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
University of Leiden
Alma mater ETH Zurich
University of Zurich
Notable students Ernst G. Straus
Nathan Rosen
Leo Szilard
Raziuddin Siddiqui[2]
Known for General relativity
Special relativity
Photoelectric effect
Brownian motion
Mass-energy equivalence
Einstein field equations
Unified Field Theory
Bose–Einstein statistics
Notable awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)
Copley Medal (1925)
Max Planck Medal (1929)
Time Person of the Century
Signature
.Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n]  ( listen); 14 March 1879–18 April 1955) was a German-born Swiss-American theoretical physicist, philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the most influential and best known scientists and intellectuals of all time.^ I'm really beginning to wonder if it isn't the best TV drama of all time.
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ One thing I didn't catch the first time around was that Ben said he was "one of the people" who was smart enough to not end up in the grave.
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He is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[3] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."[4]
.His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and gravitational lensing, the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules, the photon theory and wave-particle duality, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept, the semiclassical version of the Schrödinger equation, and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose–Einstein condensation.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works.[5] Einstein additionally wrote and commentated prolifically on numerous philosophical and political issues.

## Biography

### Early life and education

Einstein at the age of 4. His father showed him a pocket compass, and Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent “empty space.”[6]
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14). From Euclid, Einstein began to understand deductive reasoning, and by the age of twelve, he had learned Euclidean geometry. Soon after he began to investigate infinitesimal calculus. .At age 16, he performed the first of his famous thought experiments in which he visualized traveling alongside a beam of light.^ E=MC2 Isn't there something about travelling at the speed of light, you stay the same age while your friends and relatives age?
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[8]
The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five until ten.[9] Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[10][11] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889 Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid’s Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational interests.[13][14]
In 1894, his father’s company failed: Direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school’s regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. .In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor’s note.^ Are the rest of them going to let him keep thinking that he has the right to play games with their lives?
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Maybe Ben captured Jacob like Bentham said and will not let him go.
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[15]
Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family’s daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Winteler son, Paul.)[17] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father’s approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service, and enrolled in 1896 in the mathematics and physics program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.
In the same year, Einstein’s future wife, Mileva Marić, also entered the Polytechnic to study mathematics and physics, the only woman in the academic cohort. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić’s friendship developed into romance. In a letter to her, Einstein called Marić “a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am.”[18] Einstein graduated in 1900 from the Polytechnic with a diploma in mathematics and physics;[19] Although historians have debated whether Marić influenced Einstein’s work, the majority of academic historians of science agree that she did not.[20][21][22]

### Marriages and children

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[23] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[24]
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple’s first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.
Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[25]

### Patent office

The Einsteinhaus on the Kramgasse in Bern, where Einstein lived with his first wife during his Annus Mirabilis
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate’s father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[26] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein’s position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[27]
.Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.^ I know this is not information we've gotten from the show, but I'm thinking that "The Lost Experience" is probably canon to some extent, and I thought that the mystery of where Alvar Hanso had been was solved.
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^ Without so much else going on the Losties didnt get much of a showing this week, although I thought the reveal that Jacks secret was that "I knew about the plan all along", was pretty weak.
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[28]
With friends he met in Bern, Einstein formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, which he jokingly named "The Olympia Academy." Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[29] In 1905, he received his doctorate from the University of Zurich. His thesis was titled "On a new determination of molecular dimensions". That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.
By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics professor at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and professor at the University of Berlin.
In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support such a claim.)
In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

### Emigration to the United States

Einstein's residence in Princeton
In 1933, Einstein emigrated because of the rise to power of the Nazis[30] and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics.
He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became close friends. .They would take long walks together discussing their work.^ Any which way, they were supposed to hook up with Samantha and Tooms in the VW (to or from Dharma or Mitteleos or whatever)so Roger would take Ben to the island.
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.Just prior to the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was persuaded to lend his enormous prestige to a letter sent to President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 2, 1939, alerting him to the possibility that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb.^ People who talk of outlawing the atomic bomb are mistaken what needs to be outlawed is war.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ This was just the beginning of Ben's visions, what makes him "special" and enables his communication with Jacob/the island.
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^ The greatest crime since World War II has been US foreign policy.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

In 1940, he became an American citizen.
In 1952, he was offered the position of President of Israel, but declined.

### Death

On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[31] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel’s seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[32] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[33] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. .Einstein’s remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey.^ Anyway, the headline: "Volcanic Ash Studied for Plane Safety from Discovery News" "Understanding why eruptions can stall jet engines is the focus of a new study."
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[34][35] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein’s brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[36]

## Scientific career

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5][7] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[37]

### Physics in 1900

Einstein’s early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that atoms exist and have a finite nonzero size. .At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine Lavoisier’s work a century earlier.^ I like them both just about equally, even though I've invested wayyyyy more time in Lost.
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^ So even though I have mostly liked Jack even when others like to hate him, I say it is time for Sayid to kick his ass until he agrees not to keep any more secrets.
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The reason physicists were skeptical was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties of matter from the properties of atoms.
Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann’s way of thinking, the entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. .The reason the entropy goes up is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal configurations to a more generic state with many.^ Because you and I both know he is going to go back without Locke and be all like "WTF? Jacod killed him, what did you want ME to do?"
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^ Maybe posting the synopsis makes you feel special, like you are the only one with the info.
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^ Luis is far better known to the general public, but how many of them are watching "Lost" (Oh, about 7.5 million or so - really, more of them than there are of us.
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

While Boltzmann’s statistical interpretation of entropy is universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.
The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell’s distribution law.
In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has thermal energy kBT on average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann’s constant kB. A monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms attached to each other in a box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is 3NkB, a result which became known as the Dulong–Petit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero, the specific heat goes to zero.
Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of about 1000 degrees, but at lower temperature, this contribution disappears. .At zero temperature, all other contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear.^ It seems there are some folks who are dedicated to a specific show at the exclusion of all others.
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This behavior was inconsistent with classical physics.
The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. .Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave.^ I also loved the switching of my expectations...like many people, I was really expecting the Dharma Initiative to be the secret power behind the island when in fact it was one of its victims.
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Each standing wave has a specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. .This is obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light waves, and everything would slow down and stop.^ Now what if the back-up failsafe would completely discharge all of the energy at once, while irrevocably destroying the system.
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^ It had a slow start and an up and down middle but man the past 6 weeks have been gold.
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^ If we dont stop extending our troops all around the world in nation-building missions, were going to have a serious problem coming down the road.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

.These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical.^ People don't say that the smoke monster causes you to see things, they say that it physically manifests itself as a person or thing, as if it condenses into a solid object...
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.Notable among the skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible to see them directly.^ I think that maybe he is indeed the only one who has seen Jacob, but as we have seen, it's possible to witness Jacob's existence without seeing or hearing him.
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The point is, if Ben is the leader of everyone except Jacob, his relationship with Jacob is the only thing which would have made this possible ie: he can see and maybe hear him.
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[38] .Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to be infinitesimally small, that Avogadro’s number was infinite, or so large that it might as well be infinite, and kB was infinitesimally small.^ Well, they do say the body's largest organ is the skin, and with a hole or two (entrance and exit wounds) poked in it, his blood could fall out.
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^ Do we really believe Locke could whip Jin or Sayid, who both had their hands full with Mikhail's ninja moves?
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.Certain experiments could then be explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could not, and this is the way it will always be.^ I suppose the whole being quarrantined thing could explain their ignorance, but that's an easy way out, if you ask me.
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^ Could explain why the Others got rid of Darhma.
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^ Bat-Manuel is way cooler than any other name we could use for Richard, other than actually calling him Nestor.
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Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. .He believed that a single consistent theory should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a description of what was really going on, underneath it all.^ Remember when Starbuck "died" how the next day there were all these stories about Katie Sackoff and reasons to believe Starbuck really was dead?
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^ That would explain why Richard was all excited when young Ben talked about his vision - he thought this kid was really special, so brought him on board as some kind of prophet.
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^ It feels like the season 1 scene where Locke explains to Walt the Black White Good Evil bit is really going to be the forshadowing of the whole series.
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So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.
In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal Annalen der Physik published four of Einstein’s papers. The four papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became known as Einstein’s "Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.
Albert Einstein, 1905, The Miracle Year. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions. [39]

### Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Einstein’s earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing a thermodynamic identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of view.
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. As in Maxwell’s work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the content of his PhD thesis.[40]
His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a maximum entropy and, according to the statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. .Einstein pointed out that the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror.^ Putting aside the Management (Carnivale) parallels that have been pointed out, that sounds like something else I've seen.
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.Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized, would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely.^ I doubt the other would treat Ben as a joke while treating Jacob with reverence if they didn't have some way of knowing that he was, in fact, real.
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^ Do we really believe Locke could whip Jin or Sayid, who both had their hands full with Mikhail's ninja moves?
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Such an object would have a velocity which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the object would be kBT, and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction.
The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed that for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see Stokes’ law). .This relation could be used to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random thermal motion, and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micron, would travel about a few microns per second.^ You would think that if the island has some kind of magical fountain of youth power on him how could it still affect him when he leaves the island, which he has done on several occasions.
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^ Luis is far better known to the general public, but how many of them are watching "Lost" (Oh, about 7.5 million or so - really, more of them than there are of us.
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^ Frankly, I would not even listen to anyone seriously that came and talked about such a thing.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian motion, had actually been observed by the botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this motion with that predicted by his theory. Since the fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the fluctuations of the velocities of atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using Einstein’s theory would show that Boltzmann’s constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro’s number.
These experiments were carried out a few years later, and gave a rough estimate of Avogadro’s number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to Max Planck’s theory of blackbody light, and Robert Millikan’s measurement of the charge of the electron.[41] Unlike the other methods, Einstein’s required very few theoretical assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible grains.
Einstein’s theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics. It established that thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. .This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws.^ Every show that has tried "Lost" ratings big time when they returned to the schedule.
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These relations are known as Einstein relations.
The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein’s Annus mirabilis papers, but it had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.

### Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles

Einstein’s thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that quantum properties of light mean that Maxwell’s equations were only an approximation. .He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but he did not know how to go about finding those laws.^ These people are trying to shake the will of the Iraqi citizens, and they want us to leave...I think the world would be better off if we did leave...
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere.
So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical laws which can be understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they have not yet been shown to apply. A well accepted example of an a-priori principle is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is assumed to be rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new principles of this sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then the new physics will be the simplest theory consistent with the principles and with previously known laws.
The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is indistinguishable from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein’s general principles, Mach’s principle, is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established.
The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein’s early work, and has become a standard tool in modern theoretical physics.

### Special relativity

.His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer’s state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity.^ E=MC2 Isn't there something about travelling at the speed of light, you stay the same age while your friends and relatives age?
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Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[42] In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the twentieth century’s best-known equation: E = mc2.[43][44] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.[45] Einstein’s 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[46][47]

### Photons

In a 1905 paper,[48] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein’s light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan’s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein’s paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien’s law, has an entropy which looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.
Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable particles in the same box. .Since (unlike others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently postulates that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable interpretation of the entropy.^ No way, not only did we get answers (clear division between hostiles and dharma and dharma doesnt mind taking up arms to defend itself.
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This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck’s constant. .He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave.^ I'll be shocked if Locke does die because he seems to be the key to unlocking the mysteries of the island....especially since Ben doesn't know as much as he lets on.
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^ To some degree it matters who's in office, but it matters more how much pressure they're under from the public.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

.But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.^ Also, that photo of Alver Hanso does look like the brief shot of Jacob we saw, although that doesn't explain the clothing and doesn't explain why he would be called Jacob.
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[49]

### Quantized atomic vibrations

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck’s distribution for light oscillators had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.
Einstein’s model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB, since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.
Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation. With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann’s statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf, the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.
So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called phonons. .Because all of Einstein’s springs have the same stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low.^ So they have to go back to the island and figure out how to save it.
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^ Jacob could just be the name that Ben gave to the manifestation of whatever-the-fuck-it-is and all the islanders went along because they can't see it.
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^ The hostiles are now trying to keep them out with the fence, and SM doesn't like the Losties for the same reason they didn't like the hostiles.
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The solution to this problem is to solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This was done by Debye, and after this modification Einstein’s quantization method reproduced quantitatively the behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures.
This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.

### Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. .After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.^ Also, that photo of Alver Hanso does look like the brief shot of Jacob we saw, although that doesn't explain the clothing and doesn't explain why he would be called Jacob.
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Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was the basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.

### Wave-particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[50] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck’s energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.

### Theory of Critical Opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. .The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white.^ I have seen enough of it to make me look upon it as the sum of all evils.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[51]
Einstein at the Solvay conference in 1911. That year he became an associate professor at the University of Zurich and shortly afterward, he accepted a full professorship at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague.

### Zero-point energy

Einstein’s physical intuition led him to note that Planck’s oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck’s hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 12hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.

### Principle of equivalence

In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. .He thought about the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field.^ The only thing about that idea is, why would Jack have been on the plane as a means of saving Ben's life if this was the case?
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[52] He used special relativity to see that the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first approximation.
Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect. But the actual value for the deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation he used doesn’t work well for things moving at near the speed of light. .When Einstein finished the full theory of general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by the sun.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar eclipse.[53] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein’s challenge to scientists around the world.[54]
Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909–1912, studying its properties by means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making experiments on a rotating turntable. .He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry.^ I would rather be hacked to pieces than take part in such an abominable business.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

.The reason is that the radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted.^ It seems to me that if he were dead then there would be no reason to be secretive about it.
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Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in this language.

### Hole argument and Entwurf theory

.While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.
The Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. .Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, Einstein abandoned the theory after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.^ Luis is far better known to the general public, but how many of them are watching "Lost" (Oh, about 7.5 million or so - really, more of them than there are of us.
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^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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### General relativity

.In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry.^ Now what if the back-up failsafe would completely discharge all of the energy at once, while irrevocably destroying the system.
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^ Now with Locke around...someone more special than Ben...Ben is threatened, shoots him, etc.
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On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used today.[55] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. .During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons.^ There are only two powers in the world: the sword and the mind.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The life of the nation is secure only while the nation is honest, truthful, and virtuous.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The great armies, accumulated to provide security and preserve the peace, carried the nations to war by their own weight.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

Some of Einstein’s work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. .After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.^ Wars frequently begin ten years before the first shot is fired.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

[56]
In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein ’s 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.[57] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein’s prediction, although its findings were not published.[58]
Eddington’s photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed Einstein’s theory that light “bends.” On 7th November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: “Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown.”[59]
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein’s prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe, a west African island.[54] .Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";[60] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[61] The international media guaranteed Einstein’s global renown.^ About the quote : Thucydides was a Athenian historian, born in the 5th century, BC. Here, he is quoting the Athenian general Nikias on the proposed invasion of Sicily during the Peloponnesian War.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ About the quote : Robert Higgs is a Senior Fellow in Political Economy for The Independent Institute.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ About the quote : Ebadi is Nobel Peace Laureate of Iran.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently unreliable.[59] The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[62] Some resented the newcomer’s fame, notably among some German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[63][64]

### Cosmology

.In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[65]
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach’s principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach’s principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach’s idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach’s principle would hold.
Mach’s principle has generated much controversy over the years.
After her husband’s many relocations, Mileva established a permanent home with the children in Zürich in 1914. Einstein went alone to Berlin, where he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. Einstein was president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918)[66] and also directed the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932).[67]

### Modern quantum theory

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[68] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck’s distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie’s work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger’s work of 1926.

### Bose–Einstein statistics

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose’s statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose’s paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[69] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NISTJILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[70] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein’s sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[37]

### Energy momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether’s theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether’s presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.

### Unified field theory

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation, which would allow the explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation." [71] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein’s approaches to unification. Einstein’s dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

### Wormholes

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

### Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. .He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other.^ Gepta, you mentioned at JTS that you were looking for a chat room, but considering how active a "Lost" talk-back at AICN will be for the next day or two, why would you want to log off?
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^ Two armies that fight each other is like one large army that commits suicide.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ You would think that if the island has some kind of magical fountain of youth power on him how could it still affect him when he leaves the island, which he has done on several occasions.
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He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein’s objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.

### Equations of motion

The theory of general relativity has two fundamental laws – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, and the geodesic equation which describes how particles move.
.Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law.^ Honestly, I would like to have some constructive discussion here as to how people think this will play out.
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So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

### Einstein’s mistakes

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein’s papers contain mistakes:
.
• 1905: In the original German version of the special relativity paper, and in some English translations, Einstein gives a wrong expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle.^ "Mittelwerk" translates literally from German to English as "means work".
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The transverse mass is the antiquated name for the ratio of the 3-force to the 3-acceleration when the force is perpendicular to the velocity. Einstein gives this ratio as $\scriptstyle m/(1 - v^2/c^2)$, while the actual value is $\scriptstyle m/\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}$ (corrected by Max Planck).
• 1905: In his PhD dissertation, the friction in dilute solutions has a miscalculated numerical prefactor, which makes the estimate of Avogadro’s number off by a factor of 3. The mistake is corrected by Einstein in a later publication.
• 1905: An expository paper explaining how airplanes fly includes an example which is incorrect. There is a wing which he claims will generate lift. This wing is flat on the bottom, and flat on the top, with a small bump at the center. It is designed to generate lift by Bernoulli’s principle, and Einstein claims that it will. .Simple action reaction considerations, though, show that the wing will not generate lift, at least if it is long enough.
• 1911: Einstein predicted how much the sun’s gravity would deflect nearby starlight, but used an approximation which gives an answer which is half as big as the correct one.^ Though a show about Bob Marley's Ghost would be cool, no?
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^ Remember that a government big enough to give you everything you want is also big enough to take away everything you have.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ You didn't see much blood because gravity would have it leaking out his back, but we last saw him on his back.
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[72]
• 1913: Einstein started writing papers based on his belief that the hole argument made general covariance impossible in a theory of gravity.
• 1922: Einstein published a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and is well understood to be completely wrong. .The correct BCS theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics.
• 1937: Einstein believed that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves.^ Before the 70s apparently but the only people I could imagine to have been out there prior to Dharma would be U.S. forces in the Pacific War at the latest.
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While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. .Einstein retracted this position a short time later, but until his death his collaborator Nathan Rosen maintained that gravitational waves are unstable.
• 1939: Einstein denied several times that black holes could form, the last time in print.^ Could 48 more shows be all the time that is left until Lost Island goes Krakatoa?
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^ Smokey has taken human form several times before.
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.He published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole.^ E=MC2 Isn't there something about travelling at the speed of light, you stay the same age while your friends and relatives age?
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.This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong.^ It is unfortunately none too well understood that, just as the State has no money of its own, so it has no power of its own.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

.Einstein’s argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse.^ Humanity is quite a unique species, since it is the only one with the means to wipe itself out.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined.
In addition to these well-established mistakes, there are other arguments whose deduction is considered correct, but whose interpretation or philosophical conclusion is considered to have been incorrect:
• In the Bohr–Einstein debates and the papers following this, Einstein tries to poke holes in the uncertainty principle, ingeniously, but unsuccessfully.
• In the EPR paper, Einstein concludes that quantum mechanics must be replaced by local hidden variables. The measured violations of Bell’s inequality show that hidden variables, if they exist, must be nonlocal.
.Einstein himself considered the use of the "fudge factor" lambda in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[72] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach’s principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today. Einstein took the wrong side in a few scientific debates.
• He briefly flirted with transverse and longitudinal mass concepts, before rejecting them.
• Einstein initially opposed Minkowski’s geometrical formulation of special relativity, changing his mind completely a few years later.
• Based on his cosmological model, Einstein rejected expanding universe solutions by Friedman and Lemaitre as unphysical, changing his mind when the universe was shown to be expanding a few years later.
• Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics was incorrect. .He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein’s wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg’s matrices.
• Einstein rejected work on black holes[73] by Chandrasekhar, Oppenheimer, and others, believing, along with Eddington, that collapse past the horizon (then called the ’Schwarzschild singularity’) would never happen.^ History is littered with wars which everybody knew would never happen.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

.So big was his influence, that this opinion was not rejected until the early 1960s, almost a decade after his death.
• Einstein believed that some sort of nonlinear instability could lead to a field theory whose solutions would collapse into pointlike objects which would behave like quantum particles.^ Honestly, I would like to have some constructive discussion here as to how people think this will play out.
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^ I noticied in the previews a sign for 'Namaste' at some sort of enterance to a place (kind of like a Welcome sign).
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^ It seams it could be running the same direction in lost, if you have a strong connection with the island you seams to have communications of some sorts like locke has had and ben also when he was young.
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While there are many field theories with point-like particle solutions, none of them behave like quantum particles. It is widely believed that quantum mechanics would be impossible to reproduce from a local field theory of the type Einstein considered, because of Bell’s inequality.
.In addition to these well known mistakes, it is sometimes claimed that the general line of Einstein’s reasoning in the 1905 relativity paper is flawed, or the photon paper, or one or another of the most famous papers.^ About the quote : Cross is a comedian, most well known for his roles on the television series "Arrested Development" and "Mr.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ If there is no sufficient reason for war, the war party will make war on one pretext, then invent another...after the war is on.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ As for being a General, well, at the age of four with paper hats and wooden swords, we're all Generals.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

None of these claims are widely accepted.

### Collaboration with other scientists

.In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.^ I've been wanting to see Locke put the hurt on some bitch for a long time now.
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^ Otherwise, various points in a nutshell: I agree that Jacob is held prisoner, either by Ben or some other force.
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^ I've been wanting to make this point for a long time, so I hope some people read it.
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#### Einstein-de Haas experiment

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron’s angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.

#### Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[74]

#### Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This Absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[75] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. .Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.^ The very nature of interstate war puts innocent civilians into great jeopardy, especially with modern technology.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

[76]

### Bohr versus Einstein

Einstein and Niels Bohr. Einstein’s disagreement with Bohr revolved around the idea of scientific determinism.
In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." [77]
Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory’s intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[78] The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory’s predictions.[79] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.

## Religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein’s position on theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I believe in Spinoza’s God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind."[80] In a 1954 letter, he wrote, "I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly.”[81] In a letter to philosopher Erik Gutkind, Einstein remarked, "The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weakness, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still purely primitive, legends which are nevertheless pretty childish."[82]
Einstein had previously explored this belief that man could not understand the nature of God when he gave an interview to Time Magazine explaining:
I'm not an atheist and I don't think I can call myself a pantheist. We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many different languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. .The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books but doesn't know what it is.^ I'll be shocked if Locke does die because he seems to be the key to unlocking the mysteries of the island....especially since Ben doesn't know as much as he lets on.
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That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent human being toward God.
Albert Einstein[83]

## Political views

Einstein with Indian poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore during their widely publicized 14 July 1930 conversation
Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation of a nationwide liberal and democratic party,[84][85] which was published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[86] and became a member of the German Democratic Party.[87]
Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement, tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel and braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[88] He was a socialist Zionist who supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British mandate of Palestine.[89]
.After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, “I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth – rocks!”[90] In a 1949 Monthly Review article entitled “Why Socialism?”[91] Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the “predatory phase of human development” (Einstein 1949).^ Now tell me the writers and creaters either don't know what they are doing or are not listening to us.
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^ Saying that things jumped the shark jumped the shark at least five years ago when they wrote a book about it and tried to make it a TV series.
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^ No-one, and I mean no-one wants to go back to tell the tale of how they lost their ship to Jacob the Pirate.
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With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[92]
Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein’s friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[93]

## Non-scientific legacy

While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[94]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University’s Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[95]
Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[96][97]

## In popular culture

.In the period before World War II, Albert Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory."^ Also, if Ben knows about the island's healing powers and Locke's connection with the island, why would he leave Locke clinging to life when he clearly wanted him dead?
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^ If we let people see that kind of thing, there would never again be any war.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The obligations of our representatives in Washington are to protect our liberty, not coddle the world, precipitating no-win wars, while bringing bankruptcy and economic turmoil to our people.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[98]
Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, and plays. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine’s Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist’s dream come true."[99]
Einstein’s association with great intelligence and originality has made the name Einstein synonymous with genius.[100]

## Awards

Max Planck presents Albert Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society, 28 June 1929, in Berlin, Germany
In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[101] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time." (Einstein 1923)
It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money directly to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. .However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[102] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.^ You didn't see much blood because gravity would have it leaking out his back, but we last saw him on his back.
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^ The moment when we saw Juliette, talking to Ben a couple of weeks ago, and found out was a mole was a great reveal, for it is much easier to dislike that character.
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Einstein traveled to New York City in the United States for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results (Einstein 1954).[103]
In 1999, Albert Einstein was named Person of the Century by Time magazine. [99] [104]

## Honors

• The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein’s death.^ Since he was a hero and depicting him with a wound would make him appear vulnerable, the sculptor instead chose to make his statue with a "normal" looking four-toed foot.
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[106][107]
• .
• In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century, beating contenders like Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, and in the words of a biographer, “to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius.”[108] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[109] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[110]
• The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, that was established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences.^ But the Dharma Initiative discovered the island and its properties and tried to use science and technology to harness the natural power of the island.
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^ I'd probably prefer alive a little because I want to see him beat the shit out of more people than just Mikhail.
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^ Bat-Manuel is way cooler than any other name we could use for Richard, other than actually calling him Nestor.
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It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein’s 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $15,000,[112][113] which was later reduced to$ 5,000.[114][115] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[116]) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[113] Lewis L. Strauss used to be one of the trustees of the institute.[117]

## Publications

The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
• Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4: 513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
• Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" (), Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148 . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18th March.
• Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions . This PhD thesis was completed 30th April and submitted 20th July.
• Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549–560 . .This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11th May.
• Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921 .^ May 9th, 2007 11:45:17 PM .
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^ May 10th, 2007 11:17:21 AM .
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^ May 9th, 2007 11:17:12 PM .
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This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30th June.
• Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639–641 . .This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27th September.
• Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847
• Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
• Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128
• Einstein, Albert (11th July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, retrieved 25 March 2007
• Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261–267 .^ May 9th, 2007 01:18:25 PM .
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^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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First of a series of papers on this topic.
• Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223–224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300 . .On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers.
• Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
• Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146: 605, doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539
• Einstein, Albert et al. (4th December 1948), "To the editors", New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP, American Inst.^ May 11th, 2007 10:47:10 AM .
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^ May 9th, 2007 10:47:07 PM .
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^ May 10th, 2007 03:15:47 PM .
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of .Physics), ISBN 0735403597
• Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review, retrieved 16 January 2006
• Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 13–17
• Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
• Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955, Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN 388682005X
• Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes (Centennial ed.^ Einstein Rosen Bridge, Theory of Relativity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S peed_of_light http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E %3Dmc%C2%B2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W ormholes .
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^ About the quote : You can read Fred Reed's articles on LewRockwell.com: http://www.lewrockwell.com/reed/reed-arch.html .
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

^ You can read his articles at http://www.suntimes.com/index/greeley.html .
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-6 . The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
• Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10, Princeton University Press  Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page

## Notes

1. ^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein, einstein-website.de, retrieved 18 July 2009
2. ^ http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/apr25/articles32.htm
3. ^ Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology, Carus Publishing Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X , Chapter 2, p. 41
4. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Nobel Foundation, archived from the original on 5 October 2008, retrieved 6 March 2007
5. ^ a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746  His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), “Why War?” (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
6. ^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9
7. ^ a b c d e f
8. ^ (Einstein 1979)
9. ^ Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald William Clark
10. ^ Rosenkranz, Ze’ev (2005), Albert Einstein – Derrière l’image, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, p. 29, ISBN 3-03823-182-7
11. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Basic Books, pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-465-08140-1
12. ^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student," Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.
13. ^ www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert’s intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the children’s musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with "a deep feeling of happiness."Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, "for whom the Jewish community had obtained free meals with the Einstein family." Talmud came on Thursday nights for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that engaged [Albert’s] interest." Talmud had Albert read and discuss many books with him. These included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced Albert "a lot in the Bible stories could not be true," and a textbook of plane geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of mathematics, years ahead of the school curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result Einstein began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness"
14. ^ Einstein’s greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined with his family once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to take in a needy religious scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting instead a medical student on Thursdays. His name was Max Talmud, and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10.
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65. ^ (Einstein 1917a)
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• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot’s guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Abraham Pais (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. The definitive biography to date.
• -------- (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein’s Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein’s career and accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Isaacson, Walter (2007): Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6473-0
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674028289.

# Quotes

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# Study guide

Up to date as of January 14, 2010

### From Wikiversity

 Educational level: this is a research resource.
 Resource type: this resource is a workshop.
 Perspective': this resource is written with the following perspective: '''''. Its authors are committed to maintaining a high level of scholarly ethics.

## Categorization Exercise: Einstein's God

Einstein has made many quotes that include theist and atheist views (though he wasn't atheist). Since he has never been consistent either way, there are questions of how to categorize Einstein views.
These questions go beyond facts found in encyclopedic entries since it covers a lot of present and past original research (See: Einstein 2006, p. 33-37: "Religion and Science"; p. 37-38 "The Religiousness of Science"; p. 38-39 "The Plight of Science"). We can learn or discover potential prescriptive categorizations, such as theist, atheist, pantheist, agnostic, paganist, polytheist, and others. Other potential descriptive categorizations would follow much deeper into philosophical views, unlike the prescriptive categorizations. For descriptive examples we can research the philosophies of Berkeley, Spinoza, Kant, Nagel, Penrose, Lacan, and others.
Here is an exercise to compare views for research and categorization.

### Proposition

• Einstein's quote: "Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind."
• Erasmus's quote: "In the land of the blind, the one eyed man is king."
• Support or oppose: Einstein's quote implies Erasmus's quote.

### Dialog

• Both Einstein and Erasmus are found to have similar views on war. They found war to be inhumane. Some of their descriptions of war would relate soldiers as just machines, lifeless, soulless, or without consciousness. Their phraseology is meant to deprive human characteristics.(Holmes 1989, p. 21-22) In such contrast, it may provide some insight for your answer in this exercise.
Add research and rhetoric dialog here. Please keep discussion of the dialog or of this exercise on the talk page.

### Consensus

If you support that Einstein's quote did imply Erasmus's quote, add Support; if he did not, add Oppose; if you have considered this exercise and feel it requires further study and improvement to this page, add Neutral. .If you like to show participation but you haven't fully considered the exercise, just sign, ~~~~, without the support, oppose, or neutral tags.^ He looks just like you!"
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Or do you just not understand what the plot of this show is?
• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 25 September 2009 1:35 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ If you support any offensive war, consider yourself just as culpable of murder as the most insane serial killer.
• Quotes 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC antiwar.com [Source type: Original source]

• Neutral -- Dzonatas 00:05, 14 September 2008 (UTC)
• Oppose - panjandrum - 02:05, 15 September 2008 (VHV)
• Oppose—The Jade Knight (d'viser) 21:47, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

## Resources & Findings

Please use the talk page for discussion, but add, or source, any findings here.

# 1911 encyclopedia

Up to date as of January 14, 2010
(Redirected to Database error article)

# Simple English

Albert Einstein
File:Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein, 1947
Born March 14, 1879
Ulm, Württemberg, Germany
Died April 18, 1955
Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Prof. Dr. Albert Einstein ( March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955[1]) was a famous scientist. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

Einstein is famous for his theories about light, matter, gravity, space, and time, which helped scientists to understand these things much better than they had before. His theories include the theory of special relativity and the theory of general relativity. His most famous equation is $E=mc^2$. It means that energy and mass are different forms of the same thing, and that the amount of energy in a piece of mass is the same as the amount of the mass multiplied by the speed of light times itself (a very big number).

## His life

Einstein was born at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany on March 18, 1879. His family was Jewish but was not very religious. Albert did not talk until he was about three, which is very unusual.[needs proof] When Albert was around four, his father gave him a magnetic compass. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always pointed north. The needle was in a closed case, so clearly nothing like wind could be pushing the needle around, and yet it moved. So in this way Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. His compass inspired him to explore the world. Albert went to a Roman Catholic school. He was not a good student, and many people thought him to not be very smart.

When he became older, he went to a school in Switzerland. After he graduated, he got a job in the patent office there. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that made him famous as a great scientist.

Einstein had two heavily-disabled children with his first wife Mileva His daughter 'Lieserl' (her real name may never be known) was born about a year before their marriage in January 1902.[2] She spent her very short life (believed to be less than 2 years) in the care of Serbian grandparents where it is believed she died from Scarlet Fever.[3] Some believe she may have been born with the disorder called Down syndrome but it has never been proven. Her very existence only became known to the world in 1986 when a shoe-box, containing 54 love letters (mostly from Einstein) exchanged between Mileva and Einstein from late 1897 to September 1903, was discovered by Einstein's grand-daughter in an attic in California.[4] Their son, Eduard, was diagnosed at age 7 with a severe mental illness. He spent decades in hospitals, and died in the Zurich sanatorium in 1965.

There is an indirect connection between brain size and the size of the neopallium especially important for the brain's higher functions. However, Einstein's brain weight was below-average and showed signs of degeneration (e.g. Sylvian fissure).

In 1917, Einstein became very sick with an illness that almost killed him. It was his cousin Elsa Lowenthal who nursed him back to health. After this turn of events, Einstein divorced Mileva, and married Elsa on June 2, 1919.

Just before the start of World War I, he moved back to Germany, and became director of a school there. He lived in Berlin until the Nazi government came to power. The Nazis hated people who were Jewish or who came from Jewish families. They accused Einstein of helping to create "Jewish physics," and German physicists tried to prove that his theories were wrong.

In 1933, under death threats from the Nazis and despised by the Nazi-controlled German Press, Einstein and Elsa moved to the United States to Princeton, New Jersey after feeling the heat of Nazi Germany and in 1940 he became a United States citizen.

During World War II, Einstein and Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt, to say that the United States should invent an atomic bomb before the Nazi government could invent one first. He was not part of the Manhattan project, which was the project to create the atomic bomb. He was the only one that signed the letter.

Einstein died on April 18, 1955 of a burst aorta heart disease. He was still writing about quantum physics hours before he died.

## The Theory of Special Relativity

The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905 on a paper called "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". It states that both distance measurements and time measurements are altered near the speed of light. This means that as you get closer to the speed of 300,000 kilometres per second, lengths appear to shrink, and clocks tick more slowly. Einstein proposed that Special Relativity is based on two ideas. The first is that the laws of physics are the same for all observers that are not moving in relation to each other. All the people on a jet airplane would not be moving much in relation to each other, but the people in two different jet airplanes that come toward each other would be moving toward each other very fast. The people who are all going in the same direction at the same speed are said to be in an "inertial frame." The second idea is that the speed of light in a vacuum is always the same. A vacuum is a volume without any matter in it.

People who are in the same "frame" (think of them as being in a big box so that they all go places together and at the same speed) will measure how long something takes to happen in the same way. Their clocks will keep the same time. But people moving in another "frame" will look over at them and see that their clocks were moving at a different rate. The reason that this happens is actually quite simple. It is the consequence of two ideas. One idea we have seen already. No matter what you are doing, even if you are moving toward a distant star at half the speed of light, or if you are moving away from it at half the speed of light (or any other speed, it does not matter), if you measure the speed of the light coming from that star it will always be the same number. The other idea goes against our ordinary ideas. The other idea says that who is standing still and who is moving is whoever you say is standing still or moving. How can that be?

Imagine you were all alone in a different universe. That universe has no suns, planets, or anything else. It just has you and your spaceship. Are you moving? Are you standing still? Those questions do not mean anything. Why? Because when we say we are moving we mean that we can measure our distance from something else at one time and measure the distance at another time and the numbers will not be the same. If the numbers get bigger we are moving away. If the numbers get smaller we are moving closer. Suppose a sailor is standing on the edge of a very long boat with a flat top. Her boyfriend is standing on the dock. They are still very close together, so they shout to each other. The boat starts to leave. The sailor runs toward the back of the boat at the same speed that the boat moves forward so she and her boyfriend can keep talking. As far as her boyfriend is concerned, she is not moving. So to have movement you must have at least two things. We do not think about it because when we sit on the earth in a park, which is moving very fast around the sun, we think we are not moving because we do not get any closer or farther away from the trees in the park.

Now imagine that another spaceship appears in this other universe. On your spaceship you say that their spaceship is coming closer to yours. After all, you do not feel yourself moving. On their spaceship they say that your spaceship is coming closer to theirs. They do not feel themselves to be moving either. Somebody on an airplane can be moving at several hundred kilometers per hour, but they say, "I am just sitting here."

Let us try to stretch our minds a bit. Imagine that a basketball player is on a glass airplane on the ground. People outside can see him very easily. He begins to walk from the back of the airplane toward the front of the airplane, bouncing his basketball as he goes. Maybe the distance between the places where his basketball hits the floor of the airplane is about one meter or one yard. If some people are under the airplane they can mark the place directly under the airplane where the ball hits the floor. Those marks are a meter or maybe a yard apart. So everybody agrees that the bounces are about a meter or a yard apart. Later the plane takes off. People still watch it from on the ground. But this time bounce number 5 is over a place in England and bounce number 6 is over a place in Scotland. The distance between bounces is measured in kilometers or miles on the ground, but the people on the plane get the same answers they did while the plane was on the ground.

Now suppose some people are on a big spaceship and they want to make a very accurate clock. So they make a long tunnel between decks from what would be like the top of an airplane to what would be the bottom of an airplane. At one end they put a mirror, and at the other end they put a simple machine. It shoots one short burst of light toward the mirror and then waits. The light hits the mirror and bounces back. When it hits a light detector on the machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another short burst of light toward the mirror, and when that light comes back the machine says, "Count = 2." Of course since light is very fast the count changes very fast. They decide that a certain number of bounces will be defined as a second, and they make the machine change the seconds counter every time it has detected that number of bounces. Every time it changes the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a porthole under the machine. So somebody out taking a space walk will see the light flashing every second.

[[File:|300px]]

Every grade school child knows the formula d=rt (distance equals rate multiplied by time). We know the speed of light, and we can easily measure the distance between the machine and the mirror and multiple that to give the distance the light travels. So we have both d and r, and we can easily calculate t. The people on the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they are satisfied that they can measure time well using their new light clock.

Now this spaceship happens to be going very fast. It is not coming to earth to visit, but it does happen to fly over the north pole. There is a science station with a telescope at the north pole. They see a flash from the clock on the space ship, and then they see another flash. Only the flashes do not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. The reason is that the situation is like the basketball player on the airplane. The ball is pushed downward by the player's hand. That is the light in the spaceship's machine firing off a burst toward the mirror. The ball hits the floor and bounces. That is like the light hitting the mirror and being reflected. The ball returns to the player's hand. That is like the light hitting the machine and triggering a new burst of light. Note that the distance between the place on the ground where the basketball is seen to hit the floor and the distance on the ground where the basketball is seen to return to the basketball player's hand is some great distance. Depending on how fast the plane is going, it might be a kilometer or even a mile away.

So the man on the north pole sees the light flash on the side of the spaceship when it is thousands of miles away, and then sees the next flash when the spaceship has gotten thousands of miles closer. The way the north pole man sees it, the light started out, let's say, 100,000 miles away and hit its return point when it was perhaps 90,000 miles away. So instead of just traveling twice the diameter of the space ship (perhaps several hundred meters or yards) the light has traveled 10,000 miles. Light always goes at the same speed, d = rt, and so the time this trip took is going to be much greater --- as seen by the man on the north pole. That is why the clock on the spaceship is not flashing once a second for the earth observer.

Special Relativity also relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc2 formula.

## Mass-energy equivalence

E=mc2, also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the things that Einstein is most famous for. It is a famous equation in physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to energy or energy changes to mass. The "E" in the equation stands for energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending on how much they can change other things. For instance, a brick hanging over an egg can put enough energy onto the egg to break it. A feather hanging over an egg does not have enough energy to hurt the egg.

There are three basic forms of energy: Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy, and Rest Energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen in the examples given above, and in the example of a pendulum.

[[File:]]

A cannon ball hangs on a rope from an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannon ball to the right side. When the cannon ball is released it will move back and forth as diagrammed. It would do that forever except that the movement of the rope in the ring and rubbing in other places causes friction, and the friction takes away a little energy all the time. If we ignore the losses due to friction, then the energy provided by the horse is given to the cannon ball as potential energy. (It has energy because it is up high and can fall down.) As the cannon ball swings down it gains more and more speed, so the nearer the bottom it gets the faster it is going and the harder it would hit you if you stood in front of it. Then it slows down as its kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy. "Kinetic energy" just means the energy something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the energy something has because it is in some higher position than something else.

When energy moves from one form to another, the amount of energy always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This rule is called the "conservation law of energy". For example, when you throw a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the ball as you release it. But the energy that was in your hand, and now the energy that is in the ball is the same number. For a long time, people thought that the conservation of energy was all there was to talk about.

When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy does not remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of energy also does not remain the same. However, the amount of matter and energy remains the same. Energy turns into mass and mass turns into energy in a way that is defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc2.

The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the amount of matter there is in some body. If you knew the number of protons and neutrons in a piece of matter such as a brick, then you could calculate its total mass as the sum of the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they are almost negligible.) Masses pull on each other, and a very large mass such as that of the Earth pulls very hard on things nearby. You would weigh much more on Jupiter than on Earth because Jupiter is so huge. You would weigh much less on the moon because it is only about one sixth the mass of Earth. Weight is related to the mass of the brick (or the person) and the mass of whatever is pulling it down on a spring scale — which may be smaller than the smallest moon in the solar system or larger than the Sun.

Mass, not weight, can be transformed into energy. Another way of expressing this idea is to say that matter can be transformed into energy. Units of mass are used to measure the amount of matter in something. The mass or the amount of matter in something determines how much energy that thing could be changed into.

Energy can also be transformed into mass. If you were pushing a baby buggy at a slow walk and found it easy to push, but pushed it at a fast walk and found it harder to move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby buggy. Then if you tried to run and found that moving the buggy at any faster speed was like pushing against a brick wall, you would be very surprised. The truth is that when something is moved then its mass is increased. Human beings ordinarily do not notice this increase in mass because at the speed humans ordinarily move the increase in mass in almost nothing.

As speeds get closer to the speed of light, then the changes in mass become impossible not to notice. The basic experience we all share in daily life is that the harder we push something like a car the faster we can get it going. But when something we are pushing is already going at some large part of the speed of light we find that it keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get it going faster. It is impossible to make any mass go at the speed of light because to do so would take infinite energy.

Sometimes a mass will change to energy. Common examples of elements that make these changes we call radioactivity are radium and uranium. An atom of uranium can change itself into an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) and becomes a new element with a lighter nucleus. Then that atom will emit two electrons, but it will not be stable yet. It will emit a series of alpha particles and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what we call lead. By throwing out all these particles that have mass it has made its own mass smaller. It has also produced energy, as anyone who has seen a movie of an atomic bomb exploding can believe.[5]

In most radioactivity, the entire mass of something does not get changed to energy. In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into lead. There is a slight difference in the mass of the resulting lead and the mass of the original uranium, but the energy that is released by the change is huge. One way to express this idea is to write Einstein's equation as:

E = (muranium - mlead) c2

The c2 in the equation stands for the speed of light squared. To square something means to multiply it by itself, so if you were to square the speed of light, it would be 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters per second, which is approximately
(3•108)2 = (9•1016 meters2)/seconds2=
90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
So the energy produced by one kilogram would be:
E = 1 kg • 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 kg meters2/seconds2
or
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 joules
or
E = 90,000 terajoule

About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb that exploded over Hiroshima.[6] So about two thirds of a gram of the radioactive mass in that atomic bomb must have been transformed into lead.

## Momentum

In classical physics, momentum is explained by the equation:
p = mv
where
p represents momentum
m represents mass
v represents velocity (speed)

Einstein made an equation that takes account of the way mass relates to velocity:
E2 = (mc2)2 + (pc)2, where:
E represents the energy of the particle
c represents the speed of light.

There are two special cases of this equation.

In the case of photons, because their mass = 0, then:

E2 = 0 + (pc)2
E = pc
p = E/c

The energy of a photon can be computed from its frequency or wavelength. Knowing either frequency or wavelength, you can compute the photon's momentum.

In the case of motionless things with mass, since v = 0, then:
E2 = (mc2)2 + 0
which is just
E = mc2

A photon has no mass, but it nevertheless has momentum. In classical physics, p = mv, which means that momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. But as has been discussed above, an increase in velocity also means an increase in mass, something that the classical definition of momentum did not think about. When Einstein generalized the classical equation to include the increase of mass due to the velocity of the moving matter, he arrived at an equation that predicted energy as the sum of two components. One component involves mass and the other component involves velocity. The equation typically has values greater than zero for both components. A 0 mass photon moving at c still has a positive momentum.

If people took the positive momentum calculated from the relativistic equation and plugged it back into the classical equation, they could falsely conclude that a photon of light has mass. But its momentum comes from its energy and not from its mass. The momentum of a photon can be figured from the frequency of the photon, and the frequency is an aspect of its energy.

pphoton = E/c

pbox = Mv (M = mass of box, v = speed of box in recoil from firing of the photon

Δt is the time for the photon to reach the other side of the box. Δx is the distance the book will have moved while photon is in flight.

Speed of box

v = Δx/Δt

There is conservation of momentum, therefore

Mv = E/c or M Δx/Δt = E/c (conservation of momentum equation)

L is the length of the box, so time to reach other side of box =

Δt = L/c

so M Δx/(L/c) = E/c

M Δx = (E/c)(L/c) = EL/c2

If there were some particle being shot, instead of light, the particle would have some mass m.

The center of mass for the box plus the particle would be:

x bar = (Mx1 + mx2) / (M + m)

"We require that the centre of mass of the whole system does not change. Therefore, the centre of mass at the start of the experiment must be the same at the end of the experiment. Mathematically: "--http://www.adamauton.com/warp/emc2.html

(Mx1 + mx2)/(M+m) = (M(x1=Δx) + mL)/(M+m)

Photon starts at the left end of the box, so x2 = 0

(Mx1 + 0)/(M+m) = (M(x1=Δx) + mL)/(M+m)

(Mx1 )/(M+m) = (M(x1-Δx) + mL)/(M+m)

(Mx1 ) = (M(x1=Δx) + mL)

Mx1 = Mx1=MΔx + mL

mL = MΔx


Above we had: M Δx/Δt = E/c

or M Δx = EΔt/c

so

mL = MΔx = E Δt /c

and Δt = L/c

so

mL = EL/c2

and rearranging,

E = mc2

Starting with Maxwell's law regarding light having momentum related to its energy, Einstein showed that mass must be convertible to energy.

## The General Theory of Relativity

The General Theory of Relativity was published in 1915, ten years after the Special Theory of Relativity was created. According to the General Theory of Relativity, the gravitational attraction between masses results in the masses in space and time, meaning that every object is attracted to each other, and that results in space and time. Einstein's General Relativity also explained spacetime. Spacetime is the fact that we have a four dimensional universe, having three spatial(space) dimensions, and one temporal(time) dimension. All physical objects-us, the moon, the sun, the Milky Way, everything, is located inside these three dimensions. Also, mass causes the shape of spacetime to change, making it curved. All things follow these curves. Black holes are a major source of gravitational waves. A black hole is an object in the universe that has such a strong pull of gravity, that not even light can escape it. They are formed when giant stars, at least three times the size of our sun, dies. This is called a supernova. Also, general relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is where light bends when a massive object comes near it. This was proven during a solar eclipse, when the sun's bending of starlight from distant stars could be measured because of the darkness of the eclipse. General Relativity also set the stage for the theory of the formation of our universe. This theory is called the Big Bang. General Relativity explained singularities, which is what scientists think the universe formed from. This singularity was small, dense, and very hot. All of the matter that we know today came out of this point 15 billion years ago.

## Beliefs

Many scientists only care about their work, but Einstein also spoke and wrote often about politics and world peace. He liked the ideas of socialism and of having only one government for the whole world. He also worked for Zionism, the effort to try to create the new country of Israel.

Einstein's family was Jewish, but Einstein never practiced this religion seriously. He liked the ideas of the Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza and also thought that Buddhism was a good religion.[needs proof]

Even though Einstein thought of many ideas that helped scientists understand the world much better, he disagreed with many scientific theories that were developed later in his life. Many scientific theories discuss things that we cannot know for certain, but only as probabilities. Einstein did not like these kinds of theories; he thought that it should be possible to understand anything, if we had the correct theory. He once said, "I do not believe that God plays dice with the Universe."

Because Einstein helped science so much, his name is now used for several different things. A unit used in photochemistry was named for him. It is equal to Avogadro's number multiplied by the energy of one photon of light. The chemical element Einsteinium is named after the scientist as well.[7] In slang, we sometimes call a very smart person an "Einstein."

One of his inspiring sayings is "There are two ways to live your life, one is as though nothing is a miracle, the other is as though everything is a miracle."

There is still a strong criticism of Einstein. Ronald William Clark says that Einstein hated Germany and the Germans since his youth. A group in Germany called G.O.Mueller wrote a whole encyclopedia refuting Einstein's relativity. G.O.Mueller, Aristotle, Kant, Leibniz say space and time are categories of perception, not distortable "things", and not joined together.The speed of light could be higher. Paul Dirac and others thought that constants can change over time, too (e.g. gravitation). G.O.Mueller lists about 4000 Einstein-critical works since 1905, rallying worldwide for rethinking relativity.

## References

1. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html
2. Albert Einstein, Mileva Marić: The Love Letters, Princeton, N.J. 1992, p. 73
3. Albert Einstein, Mileva Marić: The Love Letters, Princeton, N.J. 1992, p. 78
4. Golden, Frederic (Sep. 26, 1999), "Einstein's Lost Child", Time Magazine, retrieved 10/31/2009
5. George Gamow, One, Two, Three...Infinity, p. 170ff
6. Los Alamos National Laboratory report LA-8819, The yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions by John Malik, September 1985. Available online at http://www.mbe.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/publications/LANLHiroshimaNagasakiYields.pdf
7. "Einsteinium named after Einstein". Retrieved 2008-12-05.

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