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| ʿAli ibn Abi Talib | |
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| Commander of the Faithful (Amir al-Mu'minin) | |
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| Caliph Ali's empire in 661, light green shows Ali's claim but not controlled. | |
| Reign | 656–661[1] |
| Full name | Ali ibn Abi Talib |
| Titles | Father of Hasan (Arabic: Abu Al-Hasan) Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab) Murtada ("One Who Is Chosen and Contented") Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullah) Lion (Arabic: Haydar)[1] First ʿAlī |
| Born | October 23, 598[2],March 17, 599 or March 17, 600[1] |
| Birthplace | Kaba, Mecca[1] |
| Died | January 28, 661 (aged 62) |
| Place of death | Kufa[1] |
| Buried | Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq |
| Predecessor | Muhammad as Shia Imam/Uthman Ibn Affan as Caliph |
| Successor | Hasan[3]/Muawiya I |
| Wives | Fatimah[1] Fatima bint Hizam al-Qilabiyya ("Ummu l-Banin") |
| Offspring | Hasan Husayn Zaynab (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib ) |
| Father | Abu Talib |
| Mother | Fatima bint Asad |
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Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (Arabic: علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب; Transliteration: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, [ʕaliː ibn ʔæbiː t̪ˤɑːlib]; 13th Rajab, 24 BH–21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH; approximately October 23, 598 or 600[2] or March 17, 599 – January 27, 661[4]) was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661. Sunni Muslims consider Ali the fourth and final of the Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs), while Shi'a Muslims regard Ali as the first Imam and consider him and his descendants the rightful successors to Muhammad, all of which are members of the Ahl al-Bayt, the household of Muhammad. This disagreement split the Muslim community into the Sunni and Shi'a branches.[1]
Most records do indicate that during Muhammad's time, Ali was the only person born in the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca, the holiest place in Islam.[5] His father was Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad[1] but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle. When Muhammad reported receiving a divine revelation, Ali was among the first to accept his message, dedicating his life to the cause of Islam.[4][6][7][8]
Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad. There Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage.[1] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors on battles, and carrying messages and orders. Ali took part in the early raids against caravans from Mecca and later in almost all the battles fought by the early Muslim community.
Ali was appointed caliph by Muhammad's companions in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan.[9] He encountered defiance and civil war during his reign. In 661, Ali was attacked while praying in the mosque of Kufa, dying a few days later.[10]
In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Qur'anic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[11] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has thus continued throughout Islamic history.[1]
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Life Legacy Perspectives |
Ali's father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was the custodian of the Kaaba and a sheikh of the Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother Fatima bint Asad also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ishmael, the son of Ibrahim or Abraham.[12]
Many sources, including all Shi'a records, attest that during Mohammad's time Ali was the only person born inside the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. However, some sources contend that he was born beside the Kaaba rather than inside it. According to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one".[1][13]
Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, Ali's father took him into his house.[1] Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.[14] When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. Muhammad took Ali into his home to raise him.[1][6][15]
The second period of Ali's life begins in 610 when he declared Islam at age 10 and ends with the Hijra of Muhammad to Medina in 622.[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed to Islam.[1][4][6][7] According to Ibn Ishaq and some other authorities, Ali was the first male to embrace Islam. Tabari adds other traditions making the similar claim of being the first Muslim in relation to Zayd or Abu Bakr.[16] Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion is not worthy enough to consider him the first male Muslim because he was a child at the time.[17]
Shi'a doctrine asserts that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he accepted Islam before he took part in any pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion rites, regarded by Muslims as polytheistic (see shirk) or paganistic. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored — that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols.[6] The Sunnis also use the honorific Karam Allahu Wajhahu, which means "God's Favor upon his Face."
The reason his acceptance is often not called a conversion, is because he was never an idol worshiper like the people of Mecca. He was known to have broken idols in the mold of Abraham and asked people why they worshiped something they made themselves. Ali's grandfather, it is acknowledged without controversy, along with some members of the Banu Hashim clan, were Hanifs, followers of a monotheistic belief system, prior to the coming of Islam.
For three years Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret, then he started inviting publicly. When, according to the Quran, he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam[18] he gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony.
According to al-Tabari, Ibn Athir and Abu al-Fida, Muhammad announced at invitational events that whoever assisted him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and successor. Only Ali, who was thirteen or fourteen years old, stepped forward to help him. This invitation was repeated three times, but Ali was the only person who answered Muhammad. Upon Ali's constant and only answer to his call, Muhammad declared that Ali was his brother, inheritor and vice-regent and people must obey him. Most of the adults present were uncles of Ali and Muhammad, and Abu Lahab laughed at them and declared to Abu Talib that he must bow down to his own son, as Ali was now his Emir[19] This event is known as the Hadith of Warning.
During the persecution of Muslims and boycott of the Banu Hashim in Mecca, Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad.[20]
In 622, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot so that Muhammad could escape in safety.[1][6][21] This night is called Laylat al-Mabit. According to some hadith, a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says, "And among men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah"[22][23]
Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with his mother, Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and two other women.[4][6]
Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions (sahaba) he selected Ali as his brother.[4][6][24] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service as his secretary and deputy, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. [25] As one of Muhammad's lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
In 623, Muhammad told Ali that God ordered him to give his daughter Fatimah Zahra to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad said to Fatimah: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."[26] This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like the Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[27],[28]
Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad to have progeny. Their two sons (Hasan and Husain) were cited by Muhammad to be his own sons, honored numerous times in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the youth of Jannah" (Heaven, the hereafter.)[29][30]
Theirs was a simple life of hardship and deprivation. Throughout their life together, Ali remained poor because he did not set great store by material wealth.To relieve their extreme poverty, Ali worked as a drawer and carrier of water and she as a grinder of corn. Often there was no food in her house. According to a famous Hadith, one day she said to Ali: "I have ground until my hands are blistered." and Ali answered "I have drawn water until I have pains in my chest."[31][32]
Their marriage lasted until Fatimah's death ten years later. Although polygamy was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between two great figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many children.[1]
With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all battles and expeditions fought for Islam.[6] As well as being the standard-bearer in those battles, Ali led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions Ali killed between twenty and thirty-five enemies in battle, most agreeing with twenty-seven.[33]
Ali was prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.[34] He had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslim army fled from the battle of Uhud[1] and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar."[35] He was commander of the Muslim army in the Battle of Khaybar.[36] Following this battle Mohammad gave Ali the name Asadullah, which in Arabic means "Lion of Allah" or "Lion of God". Ali also defended Muhammad in the Battle of Hunayn in 630.[1]
Muhammad designated Ali as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur'an, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. In 630, Ali recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Qur'an that declared Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshipped by the Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Kaaba to purify it after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era. Ali was sent to Yemen one year later to spread the teachings of Islam. He was also charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.[1][4]
According to hadith collections, in 631 an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation[37], Muhammad called them to mubahala (cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families.[38] Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his surviving grandchildren Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians but when one of the Christian monks saw their faces, he advised his companions to withdraw from Mubahala for the sake of their lives and families. Thus the Christian monks vanished from the Mubahala place. Allameh Tabatabaei explains in Tafsir al-Mizan that the word "Our selves" in this verse [38] refers to Muhammad and Ali. Then he narrates Imam Ali al-Rida, eighth Shia Imam, in discussion with Al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this verse to prove the superiority of Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the Muslim community, and considered it the proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to Allah made Ali like the self of Muhammad.[39]
In another event when the verse of purification was revealed Muhammad was sitting in his house. He covered his daughter Fatima, cousin Ali, grandsons Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali and himself with his cloak and said O' Allah these are my Ahl al-Bayt (family), purify them from najasat (impurity). This is also known as Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. Sunnis and Shia both believe that Ahl al-Bayt (family of Muhammad) were glorified in the Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[40],[41] [42]
As Muhammad was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, he made statements about Ali that are interpreted very differently by Sunnis and Shias.[1] He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm, gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them[43]:
"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.[44]."
This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni, but they interpret the quote differently.[45]
Some Sunni and Shi'a sources report that then he called Ali ibn Abi Talib to his sides, took his hand and raised it up declaring[46]
The Shia's regard these statements as constituting the investiture of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast, the Sunnis take them only as an expression of Muhammad's closeness to Ali and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death. [48] Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.[1][49]
On the basis of this hadith, Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.[50]
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A series of articles on |
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Life Career Succession Interactions with Perspectives |
 Part of a series on  |
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| Beliefs and practices |
| Succession of Ali Imamate of the Family Mourning of Muharram Intercession · Ismah The Occultation· Clergy |
| Views |
| The Qur'an · Sahaba Mu'awiya I · Abu Bakr · Umar |
| Holy days |
| Ashura · Arba'een · Mawlid Eid ul-Fitr · Eid al-Adha Eid al-Ghadeer · Eid al-Mubahila |
| History |
| Twelver · Ismāʿīlī · Zaidi The verse of purification Mubahala · Two things Khumm · Fatimah's house First Fitna · Second Fitna The Battle of Karbala Persecution |
| Ahl al-Kisa |
| Muhammad · Ali · Fatimah Hasan · Husayn |
| Some companions |
| Salman the Persian Miqdad ibn Aswad Abu Dharr al-Ghifari Ammar ibn Yasir Bilal ibn Ribah |
After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[51] While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, a close companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of the Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself.[8][52]
Following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then, it is alleged that Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr.[53] Then Umar set the house on fire and pushed the burnt door on Fatima. Some sources say upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was put in chains by Umar and their companions.[citation needed] Fatimah, in support of her husband, started a commotion and threatened to "uncover her hair", at which Abu Bakr relented and withdrew.[54] Ali is reported to have repeatedly said that had there been forty men with him he would have resisted.[53] When Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.[4]
This contentious issue led Muslims to later split into two groups, Sunni and Shi'a. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shi'as believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him which had been determined by divine order.[8][55]
The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had assigned to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims.[56] Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imam'ate without this fighting .[57]
Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.[8][58]
According to historical reports, Ali maintained his right to the caliphate and said:
"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.[59]
After Muhammad died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Ali together with Umm Ayman testified to the fact that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested Fatima to summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude until she died.[60]
After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance during Umar's era, but was denied with the same argument. Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property.[61]
Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years, Ali neither took part in any battle or conquest.[4] nor did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[62] He also made gardens for his family and descendants.[citation needed]
Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, mus'haf.[63] six months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mus'haf differed from that which was gathered later during the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no resistance against standardized mus'haf.[64]
Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah.[4] Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.[65]
He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones.[66]
Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which was appointed by Umar. Although Ali was one of the two major candidates, but the council's arrangement was against him. Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf who were cousins, were naturally inclined to support Uthman, who was Abdur Rahman's brother-in-law. In addition, Umar gave the casting vote to Abdur Rahman. Abdur Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on the condition that he should rule in accordance with the Quran, the example set by Muhammad, and the precedents established by the first two caliphs. Ali rejected the third condition while Uthman accepted it. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.[67]
Uthman Ibn Affan, expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who seemed to dominate him and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outrage among some groups of people. Dissatisfaction and resistance openly arose since 650-651 throughout most of the empire.[68] The dissatisfaction with his rule and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia.[69] When Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble companions including most of the the members of elector council, turned against him or at least withdrew their support putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.[70]
At this time, Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. On several occasions Ali disagreed with Uthman in the application of the Hudud; he had publicly shown sympathy for Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and had spoken strongly in the defense of Ammar ibn Yasir. He conveyed to Uthman the criticisms of other Companions and acted on Uthman's behalf as negotiator with the provincial opposition who had come to Medina; because of this some mistrust between Ali and Uthman's family seems to have arisen. Finally he tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.[4]
There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that religious punishment had to done in several cases such as Ubayd Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba. In 650 during pilgrimage, he confronted Uthman with reproaches for his change of the prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he needed from the fey', Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would be prevented by force. Ali endeavored to protect companions from maltreatment by the caliph such as Ibn Mas'ud.[71] Therefore, some historians consider Ali one the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. Because he could clearly be expected to be the prime beneficiary of the overthrow of Uthman. But Madelung rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. [72] Some other sources says Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.[4] However Madelung narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that
No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master.[73]
Ali was caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the more turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fitna.
Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the Muhajirun, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates: Ali, Talhah and al-Zubayr. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept being the caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali in accepting the office,[59][74][75] but he turned down the offer, suggesting to be a counselor instead of a chief.[76]
Talhah, Zubayr and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Mosque of the Prophet on June 18, 656 to appoint the caliph. Initially Ali refused to accept simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge to Ali, but other narrations claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talhah and Zubayr later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. Wilferd Madelung believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque.[77][78]
While the overwhelming majority of Madina's population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads, kinsmen of Uthman, fled to the Levant or remained in their houses, later refusing Ali's legitimacy. Sa‘ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they would not act against him.[77][78]
Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quran and the Sunna; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility.[4]
Ali inherited the Rashidun Caliphate—which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughira ibn Shu'ba and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed his governing cautiously. Madelung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[79] Muawiyah I, the kinsman of Uthman and governor of the Levant refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so.[4]
When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly.[80] Ali recovered the land granted by Uthman and swore to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; He distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother Aqeel ibn Abi Talib. This was an indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the later conquests.[4][81]
Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition especially after the Battle of Bassorah. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions especially the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Qur'an reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character.[4][82] This diverse coalition became known as Shi'a Ali, meaning "party" or "faction of Ali". However according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported Ali after his election as caliph, were shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.[83]
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A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Umayyad especially Muawiyah I wanted to take revenge for Uthman's death and punish the rioters who had killed him. They attacked Ali for not punishing the rebels and murderers of Uthman. However some historians believe that they use this issue to seek their political ambitions because they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. On the other hand, the rebels maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing according to Quran and Sunnah, hence no vengeance was to be invoked.[4][6][84] Historians disagrees on Ali's position. Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them[80], while others say Ali accepted rebels argument or at least didn't consider Uthman just ruler.[85]
Under such circumstances, a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as Uthmanis, considered Uthman a rightful and just Imam (Islamic leader) till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Thus his position was in abeyance until he had been avenged and a new caliph elected. In their view Ali was the Imam of error leading a party of infidels. Some others, who knows as party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, he had forfeited the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his way or step down, thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[86]
The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group, known as "disobedients" (Nakithin) by their enemies, gathered in Mecca then moved to Basra with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people of Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. They refused Ali's offer of obedience and pledge of allegiance. The two sides met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[87]
Ali appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.[88]
Later he was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.[4][89] Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.[8]
The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed arbitration and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[4][90]
In the following years Muawiyah's army invaded and plundered cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[91] In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and Basra changed in his favor as Muawiyah's vicious conduct of the war revealed the nature of his reign. However the people's attitude toward Ali was deeply differed. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.[92]
What shows Ali's policies and ideas of governing is his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar, when appointed by him as governor of Egypt. This instruction which is considered by many Muslims and even non-Muslims as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time.[93][94]
Ali wrote in his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar:
Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds:either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them.[95]
Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people.[96]
On the 19th of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, a Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite, assassinated him with a stroke of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days before dying in Kufa on the 21st of Ramadan in 661.[97]
Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, even though a single member of the group of Kharijites killed him. Ali said to his son, Imam Hasan that if he lives on he will forgive Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam and free him, however, in the event of his death, ibn Muljim should get one equal hit and not more regardless if he dies from the hit or not, just as Ali himself received one hit from Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam.[98] Thus,Imam Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal hurt as Ali got to ibn Muljam.[92]
According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.[99] Most Shi'as accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.[100][101]
However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[102]
After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just Ahl al-Bayt of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[103] At this time, Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate.
War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shi'a. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. Muawiyah also established the Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy. [104]
Madelung writes:
Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[11]
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and Rhetoric regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali.[101]
Shia and Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."[101][105][106][107] Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. Ali himself gives this testimony:
Not a single verse of the Qur'an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...[108]
According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the unity of God.[109] Ibn Abi al-Hadid has quoted
As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[110]
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1]; According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[111]
Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.[citation needed]Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.[1] Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.[112] Of course, Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface. While there are many other quotations, prayers (Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.[113]
In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr,Islamic numerology, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali[1] through his having studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.
The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books.
Ali had several wives, Fatimah being the most beloved. He had four children by Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.[121]
Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H., he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[122]
Husayn, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims.[123] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. Al-Tabari has mentioned their names in his history. Al-Abbas, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam. Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.[124] Some historians have added the names of Ali's others sons who were killed in Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar.[125][126]
His daughter Zaynab—who was in Karbala—was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.[127]
Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, sayeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.[1]
Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1] Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.[citation needed]
The Shi'a regard Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise. This is supported by numerous Hadith, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards Ali and his family:
One morning Muhammad went out wearing a striped cloak of black camel's hair when along came Hasan b. 'Ali. He wrapped him under it, then came Husain and he wrapped him under it along with the other one (Hasan). Then came Fatima and he took her under it, then came 'Ali and he also took him under it and then said: God only desires to keep away the uncleanness from you, O People of the House! and to purify you a (thorough) purifying.
—Sahih Muslim, Book 031, Number 5955
According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[128] Ali is known as "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.[129]
Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[130] or other Ziyaratnames.[131] Under the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to Najaf and Karbala.[8]
According to the Ghurabiyya Shia, Ali was supposed to have solely had the position of Muhammad (i.e. the prophethood and messengership). However, the angel Gabriel mistakenly went to Muhammad instead of Ali.
Contemporary Sunni Muslims generally regard Ali with respect as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun caliphs and view him as one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Historically, however, he was ritually cursed in mosques by the Ummayyads[citation needed] until the practice was abolished by Umar ibn Abdul Aziz during the Umayyad caliphate.[citation needed] Also, he is one of the Al-Asharatu Mubashsharun, which is the promised Ten to be in heaven.
Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1] Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.[citation needed]
Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.[citation needed]
Some groups (such as the Alawis) believe that Ali is a deity in his own right or he was God incarnate. They are described as ghulat (Ar: غُلاة) "exaggerators" by the vast majority of Islamic scholars. These groups have, in traditional Islamic thought, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits. Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime.[132]
The English historian Edward Gibbon stated: "The zeal and virtue of Ali were never outstripped by any recent proselyte. He united the qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint; his wisdom still breathes in a collection of moral and religious sayings; and every antagonist, in the combats of the tongue or of the sword, was subdued by his eloquence and valour. From the first hour of his mission to the last rites of his funeral, the apostle was never forsaken by a generous friend, whom he delighted to name his brother, his vicegerent, and the faithful Aaron of a second Moses."[133]. Scottish Orientalist William Muir declared that Ali was "Endowed with a clear intellect, warm in affection, and confiding in friendship, he was from the boyhood devoted heart and soul to the Prophet. Simple, quiet, and unambitious, when in after days he obtained the rule of half of the Moslem world, it was rather thrust upon him than sought." [134] However others, such as Herni Lammens[135], have held a negative view of Ali.
The poet Khalil Gibran said of him: "In my view, ʿAlī was the first Arab to have contact with and converse with the universal soul. He died a martyr of his greatness, he died while prayer was between his two lips. The Arabs did not realise his value until appeared among their Persian neighbors some who knew the difference between gems and gravels[136][137]."
The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shī‘a Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[1]
There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shī‘a partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures [138]
Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work previous to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasid.[139] When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950 AD. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist anymore except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.932).[140]
Shi'a of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century AD are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography.[141]
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chief of Banu Hashim since 653
Clan of the Banu Quraish
Born: October 23 598 Died: February 28 661 |
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| Preceded by Muhammad seal of prophecy — last prophet |
1st Imam of Shi'a Islam 632–661 |
Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali Disputed by Nizari |
| Sunni Islam titles | ||
| Preceded by Uthman |
4th Rashidun Caliph of Sunni Islam 656–661 |
Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali |
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Ali bin Abu-Talib (Arabic: علي بن أبي طالب) (c. 600 - 661) was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, as well as being the first Shī‘ah Imām and fourth Sunni Caliph. Ali was revered for his knowledge and wisdom, and also for his eloquence as an orator and a poet.
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Similarly, doubt has also four aspects absurd reason- ing; fear; vacillation and hesitation; and unreasonable surrender to infidelity, because one who has accustomed himself to unreasonable and absurd discussions will never see the Light of Truth and will always live in the darkness of ignorance. One who is afraid to face facts (of life, death and the life after death) will always turn away from ultimate reality, one who allows doubts and uncertainties to vacillate him will always be under the control of Satan and one who surrenders himself to infidelity accepts damnation in both the worlds.
Imam Ali said Nawf ! Those are the fortunate people who adopt piety as the principle of their lives and are fully attentive to their welfare for the Hereafter. They accept bare earth as the most comfortable bed and water as the most pleasant drink. They adopt the Holy Qur'an and prayers as their guide and protector and like Prophet Jesus Christ (Isa) they forsake the world and its vicious pleasure.
Nawf ! Prophet David (Daud) once got up at such an hour in the night and said this was the hour when prayers of everyone who prayed were accepted except of those who forcibly collected revenues or who were scandal- mongers or were persons in the police force of a despotic regime or were musicians".
Certainly, this world is a house of truth for those who look into it carefully, an abode of peace and rest for those who understand its ways and moods and it is the best working ground for those who want to procure rewards for life in the Hereafter. It is a place of acquiring knowledge and wisdom for those who want to acquire them, a place of worship for the friends of God and for Angels. It is the place where prophets received revelations of God. It is the place for virtuous people and saints to do good deeds and to be assigned with rewards for the same. Only in this world they could trade with God's Favors and Blessings and only while living here they could barter their good deeds with His Blessings and Rewards. Where else could all this be done? Who are you to abuse the world when it has openly declared its mortality and mortality of everything connected with it, when it has given everyone of its inha- bitants to understand that all of them are to face death, when through its ways it has given them all an idea of calamities they have to face here, and through the sight of its temporary and fading pleasures it has given them glimpses of eternal pleasures of Paradise and suggested them to wish and work for the same. If you study it properly you will find that simply to warn and frighten you of the consequences of evil deeds and to persuade you towards good actions, every night it raises new hopes of peace and prosperity in you and every morning it places new anxieties and new worries before you. Those who passed such lives are ashamed of and repent the time so passed abuse this world. But there are people who will praise this world on the Day of Judgment that it reminded them of the Hereafter and they took advantage of these reminders. It informed them of the effects of good deeds and they made correct use of the information it advised them and they were benefited by its advice".
The truth of these facts is attested by the Holy Qur'an As far as prayers are concerned He says Pray to Me and I shall accept your prayers. About repentance He says: Whoever has done a bad deed or has indulged in sin and then repents and asks for His forgiveness will find God most Forgiving and Merciful. About being thankful He says if you are thankful for what you are given, I shall increase My Bounties and Blessings. About atonement of sin He says God accepts the repentance of those who have ignorantly committed vice and then soon repent for it, God accepts such repentance's, He is Wise and Omniscient.
O Kumayl ! Knowledge is power and it can command obedience. A man of knowledge during his lifetime can make people obey and follow him and he is praised and venerated after his death. Remember that knowledge is a ruler and wealth is its subject.
O Kumayl ! Those who amass wealth, though alive, are dead to realities of life, and those who achieve know- ledge, will remain alive through their knowledge and wisdom even after their death, though their faces may disappear from the community of living beings, yet their ideas, the knowledge which they had left behind and their memory, will remain in the minds of people".
Kumayl says that after this brief dissertation, Imam Ali pointed towards his chest and said, "Look Kumayl! Here I hold stores and treasures of knowledge. I wish I could find somebody to share it with me. Yes, I found a few, but one of them, though quite intelligent, was untrustworthy, he would sell his salvation to get hold of the world and its pleasures, he would make religion a pretence to grasp worldly power and wealth, he would make this Blessing of God (knowledge) serve him to get supremacy and control over friends of God and he would through knowledge exploit and suppress other human beings. The other person was such that he apparently obeyed truth and knowledge, yet his mind had not achieved the true light of religion, at the slightest ambiguity or doubt he would get suspicious of truth, mistrust religion and would rush towards skepticism. So neither of them was capable of acquiring the superior knowledge that I can impart. Besides these two I find some other person One of them is a slave of self and greedy for inordinate desires, which can easily drag him away from the path of religion, the other is an avaricious, grasping and acquisitive miser who will risk his life to grasp and hold wealth, none of these two will be of any use to religion or man, both of them resemble beasts having appetite for food. If sensible trustees of knowledge and wisdom totally disappear from human society then both knowledge and wisdom will suffer severely, may bring harm to humanity and may even die out. But this earth will never be without those persons who will prove the universality of truth as disclosed by God, they may be well-known persons, openly and fearlessly declaring the things revealed to them or they may, under fear of harm, injury or deaths hide themselves from the public gaze and may carry on their mission privately so that the reasons proving the reality of truth as preached by religion and as demonstrated by His Prophet may not totally disappear. How many are they and where could they be found? I swear by God that they are very few in number but their worth and their ranks before God are very high. Through them God preserves His Guidance so that they, while departing, may hand over these truths to persons like themselves. The knowledge which they have acquired has made them see the realities and visualize the truth and has instilled into them the spirit of faith and trust. The duties which were decreed as hard and unbearable by them. They feel happy in the company and association of things which frighten the ignorant and uneducated. They live in this world like everybody else but their souls soar to the heights of Divine Eminence. They are media of God on this earth and they invite people towards Him. How I love to meet them O Kumayl ! I have told you all that I have to say, you can go back to your place whenever you like".
Under the influence of inordinate cravings, they commit sins in quick succession and keep on postponing repentance. Calamities and adversities make them give up the distinguished characteristics of Muslims (patience, hope in future and work for improvement of circumstances). They advise people with narration's of events and facts but do not take any lesson from them. They are good at preachings but bad at practice, therefore they always talk of lofty deeds but their actions belie their words. They are keen to acquire temporal pleasures but are careless and slow to achieve permanent (Divine) benefits. They think good for themselves the things which are actually injurious to them and regard harmful the things which really benefit them. They are afraid of death but waste their time and do not resort to good deeds before death overtakes them. The vices which they regard as enormous sins for others, they consider as minor shortcomings for themselves. Similarly, they attach great importance to their obedience to the orders of God and belittle similar actions in others. Therefore, they often criticize others and speak very highly of their own deeds. They are happy to spend their time in society of rich persons, wasting it in luxuries and vices but are averse to employing for useful purposes in company of the poor and pious people: They are quick and free to pass verdicts against others but they never pass a verdict against their own vicious deeds. They force others to obey them but they never obey God. They collect their dues carefully but never pay the dues they owe. They are not afraid of God but fear powerful men".
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Singular |
Plural |
Ali
Ali
Cognate to English Ali as a Muslim name. Also a rare diminutive form of Finnish Aleksanteri.
Ali
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Declension of Ali (type risti)
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Ali
(1930- )
Professor Emeritus Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Karachi
Ali ibn Abu Talib http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_tree_of_Ali
| Ali | |
|---|---|
| Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amir al-Mu'minin) | |
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| This mosque near Al Najaf, Iraq, is believed by Shias to house the tombstone of Ali | |
| Reign | 656 – 661[1] |
| Full name | ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib |
| Titles | Father of Hasan(Arabic: Abu Al-Hasan) Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab) Murtada(“One Who Is Chosen and Contented”) Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullah) Lion(Arabic: Heydar) [1]<small/> |
| Born | March 17, 599 [2] or March 17, 600[1] |
| Mecca[1][2] | |
| Died | February 28, 661 (age 61) |
| Kufa[1][2] | |
| Buried | Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq |
| Predecessor | Uthman |
| Successor | Muawiyah I |
| Wife/wives | Fatimah[1] |
| Issue | Hassan Husayn (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib )<small/> |
| Royal House | Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim |
| Father | Abu Talib |
| Mother | Fatima bint Asad |
Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib) (Arabic: علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب) (Thirteenth of Rajab, 24 BH – Twenty-first of Ramadan, 40 AH) (approximately: March 17 599[2] or 600[1] - February 28 661)[2] was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the Ahl al-Bayt of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Shi'a Muslims glorify him as the first Imam and consider him and and his descendants as the rightful successors to Muhammad who are the only legitimate religious and political leaders of the Muslim community and Sunni Muslims revere him as the fourth and final Rightly Guided Caliph, reigning from 656 to 661. This disagreement resulted in the only major split in Islam, into the Sunni and Shi'ite branches.[1] [3]
Ali was born in Mecca. His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad [1] but he was raised in the household of Muhammad. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed Islam. He was the first male to accept Islam.[4][5] Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. [6]
Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad. There Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage.[1] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali took part in all the battles fought for Islam during this time.
After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, the Companions of Muhammad in Medina selected Ali to be the new Caliph. [7] He encountered defiance and civil war (First Fitna) during his reign. Finally while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, a Khawarij assassinated him with a strike of a poison-coated sword. Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE. [8]
Muslims greatly respect Ali for his knowledge, belief, honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his deep loyalty to Muhammad, his equal treatment of all Muslims and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. In addition, Ali retains his stature as the foremost authority on the Tafsir (Quranic exegesis), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought.[9][3] Ali also holds a high position in almost all Sufi Muslim orders which trace their lineage to Muhammad through him.[1] In this way, his influence continued throughout Islamic history.
The compilation of sermonsو, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books. "Nahj al-Balagha" is the most famous one of them. This book is considered by historians and scholars as an important literary work in Islam.[10][11]
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Ali's father, Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, was custodian of Kaaba and a Sheikh of Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. His mother was Fatima binte Asad who was also from Banu Hashim; and this was a great honor for Ali that both of his parents belonged to Banu Hashim in Arab culture. Also he was one of descendants of Ismael the son of Ibrahim. [12]
Muhammad had close relationship with them. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather Shaiba ibn Hashim (Abdul Muttalib), Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib took Muhammad into his house. [1] Later Muhammad set out and married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. Ali was born two or three years later.[13]
Ali was born in Mecca, inside the Kaaba as Shia believe or beside it, where he stayed with his mother for three days. His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw. Muhammad took the newborn in his hands and named him Ali, meaning "exalted one".[1] [14]
When Ali was five or six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, Muhammad requested to become his guardian.[4][15][1]
The second period of 'Ali's life, lasting slightly more than a decade, begins in 610, when Muhammad received the first of his revelations, and ends with the Hijra (withdrawal) of Muhammad to Medina in 622.[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about nine years old, believed him and professed to Islam. Ali was the first male to enter Islam. [1][4][16] Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion isn't worthy enough to consider as the first male due to the fact that he was child at that time. [17]
The Shi'a believe that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he converted to Islam before he had ever taken part in any of the rites of the pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion, which Muslims regard as polytheism (see shirk) or paganism. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored - that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols.[4]
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Until three years Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret. Then he started inviting people publicly. When according to Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam[18], gathered Banu Hashim in a ceremony and told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali who had 13 or 14 years old at that time was the one who step forth and embrace Islam. This invitation repeated for three times but only Ali answer to Muhammad. Muhammad accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise. Others laughed at them and dispersed. [19] This event is known as Hadith Yawm Al-Dar or Yawm Al-Enzar among Muslim historians and scholars.
Then Muhammad made a public declaration and the struggle between Muslims and pagans started. As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. So they persecuted Muslims. According to the tradition, the leaders of Makhzum and Abd Shams, two important clans of Quraysh, declared a public boycott against the clan of Banu Hashim, their commercial rival in order to put pressure on the clan. At this time, Muhammad arranged for some of his followers to emigrate to Ethiopia. The boycott lasted for three years. Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims and boycott of Banu Hashim in Mecca.[20]
In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that Muhammad could escape in safety.[1][4][21] This night is called "Laylat Al-mabit". According to some hadith a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of hijrah which says "And among men is he who sells his NAFS (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah"[22] [23]
Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Then he went to Medina with Fatima binte Asad (his mother), Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad), and two other women. [4]
Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his Sahaba (companions) he selected Ali as his brother.[24][4][25]
For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. [26] As one of Muhammad’s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
In 623 the second year after Hijra, Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter Fatimah to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad said to Fatima: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."[25] This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in Quran in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[27][28] Ali had four children born to Fatimah. It was only through Fatimah that the progeny of Muhammad was perpetuated.(See Ali#descendants) In fact, so far as material comforts were concerned, it was a life of hardship and deprivation. Throughout their life together, Ali remained poor because he did not set great store by material wealth. Fatimah was the only one of her sisters who was not married to a wealthy man. To relieve their extreme poverty, Ali worked as a drawer and carrier of water and she as a grinder of corn. Even often there was no food in her house. One day she said to Ali: "I have ground until my hands are blistered." and Ali answered "I have drawn water until I have pains in my chest," [25][29]
Their marriage took about ten years and ended when Fatima died. Although polygyny was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between the greatest saintly figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many other children.[1]
| Campaigns of Ali |
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| Badr – Banu Qaynuqa – Uhud – Banu Nadir – The Trench – Banu Qurayza – Hudaybiyyah – Khaybar – Mu'tah – Mecca – Hunayn – Autas – Ta'if – Bassorah– Siffin– Nahrawan |
With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all the battles and expeditions fought for Islam.[4]
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. Al Seerah of Ibn Hisham narrates how he killed 20 of the pagans[30] and Al Maghazi put the number at 22.[31]
Ali was also prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.[32] He was the standard-bearer in every battle that he partook in. He also led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands, and was an ambassador. At the beginning Ali killed Talhah Ibn Abu Talhah and then his brother Abu Saad ibn Abu Talhah, the bearers of the banner of the pagans.[33] Ali ibn al-Athir, Abu Rafi, and Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari reported that Ali, alone, destroyed all the standard bearers.[34], The death of the bearers of the banner heightened the morale of the Muslims and shook the hearts of the pagans and when the army of Islam was defeated and most of the Muslims had fled Ali was one of the few Muslims who defended Muhammad. According to Ibn Atheer, "The Prophet became the object of the attack of various units of the army of Quraish from all sides. Ali attacked, in compliance with Muhammad's orders, every unit that made an attack upon him and dispersed them or killed some of them, and this thing took place a number of times in Uhud"[35] and it was said "La fata illa Ali, La saifa illa Zulfiqar" (There is no brave man except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar)."[36]
Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that prophet asked him to carry the massages and declare the orders. In 630 he recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Qur'an that declared that Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. One year later 'Ali was sent to Yemen to spread the teachings of Islam.[1]
According to hadith collections, it is narrated that during the 9th - 10th year after hijra an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus [37]. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation [38], Muhammad called them to Mubahala(Cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families. Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his surviving grandchildren, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family (Ahl al-Bayt) and covered himself and his family with a cloak.[39] The Christian envoy, the traditions add, declined to take part in Mubahala and chose instead to pay tribute.
There is another quote from Muhammad about the rightness of Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him which is:
"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.[40]."
This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni everywhere, but Sunni and Shi'a take different meanings of the quote.
Also some of Sunni and all of Shi'a resources report that Muhammad then proclaimed:
"For whoever I am a Mawla of, then 'Ali is his Mawla[41][42]."
This statement is seen by Sunnis as a recommendation of Ali's good qualities and a refutation to prevailing rumors about him[43], although Shia see it as a confirmation of Ali's succession to Muhammad and Imamah[44]
On the basis of this hadith Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.[45]
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Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity at the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. While Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's father in-law and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor.[46][47]
Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance(bay'ah) as caliph is based on his belief of his own prior title. He had not changed his mind when he finally gave his pledge to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at at time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.[48][49]
According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali believed that the caliphate was his right and told:
"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.[50]
According to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. Shi'a accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, including on his death bed. Ali had many friends, followers and supporters who believed that he should have succeeded Muhammad. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs.[51]
The succession to Muhammad is an extremely contentious issue. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue, which forms the primary theological barrier between the two major divisions of Muslims: Sunni and Shi'a, with the latter following Ali as the successor to Muhammad. The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar (or `Umar ibn al-Khattāb) and Uthman Ibn Affan or (‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān). Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claims that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. The Sunni Muslims say that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as the leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. The Shia claim, however, that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims, which was still a nascent community throughout the Arab world.[52]
After Muhammad had died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to deliver her lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community.[53] The new caliph argued that Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by Muhammad in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state, despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude till she died.[54] After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument.
However, Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property (Madelung 1997 p. 62). Shi'a sources regard this as another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers.
Ali wrote about it to Uthman ibn Hunaif:
Verily, under the sky we had only Fadak as our personal property but we were deprived of it, it tempted them, they took it by force and we had to bear the wrench patiently and cheerfully, the best judge is the Lord Almighty.[55]
Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years Ali didn't take part in any battle or conquest. He also didn't assumes any executive position. He had a few participation a politic affairs especially after death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He spent his time for his family and worked as a farmer. He dug a lot of wells and gardens beside Medina and endowed for public usage. These well are known as "Abar Ali"(Ali's wells) today.[56] He also made some gardens for his family and descendants.
Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah. Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.[57]
He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina and as his deputy when he traveled outside of Medina.[58]
Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones. When he asked Ali if he should personally participate in the battlefields of Persia and the Byzantine lands, Ali advised him not to do so.[59]
Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph and one of the two major candidates but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.[60] According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali told them:
You have certainly known that I am the most rightful of all others for the Caliphate. By Allah, so long as the affairs of Muslims remain intact and there is no oppression in it save on myself I shall keep quiet seeking reward for it (from Allah) and keeping aloof from its attractions and allurements for which you aspire.[61]
There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman Ibn Affan,the third Caliphs. Although Ali pledged allegiance to him but Ali disagreed with some of his policies. Therefore some of the historians like the writers of The Cambridge History of Islam consider Ali as one the leading members of Uthman's opposition. Madelung says Ali didn't support Uthamn when rebels besieged its palace.[62] On the other hand Ali himself said in numerous cases that he had done whatever he had been able to defend him but he didn't agree with Uthman's policies.[63]
In the beginning of rebellion people demanded that the exiled be returned to their homes, the deprived be provided sustenance, the men of strength and integrity be appointed as governors, and so on.[64] They requested Ali to speak to Uthman on their behalf and to admonish him for their sake. Ali told Uthamn "The people are behind me and they have made me an ambassador between you and themselves." He forewarned Uthman that he should have changed his manner immediately unless he would be killed. Ali told "I swear to you by Allah that you should not be that Imam of the people who will be killed because it has been said that, "An Imam of this people will be killed after which killing and fighting will be made open for them till the Day of Judgment, and he will confuse their matters and spread troubles over them. As a result, they will not discern truth from wrong."[65] Duo to Ali's mediation and Uthman's commitment rebellion settled down but it had risen again. Finally the choices offered by the rebels amounted to abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph.[66] While the situation became hard and dangerous Ali told Ibn Abbas "By Allah, I continued protecting him till I feared lest I become a sinner."[67] Later Ali said he had neither helped him nor tried to kill. According to his viewpoint Uthman appropriated (wealth) and did it badly. Rebels protested against it and committed excess therein.[68]
This is the last part of Ali's life. He was the caliph between 656 and 661 CE which was one the hardest situation in Muslim history and coincided with the First Fitna.
After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, rebels had to select a new Caliph. But this selection encountered with some difficulties. The rebels were divided into three groups comprising Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates Ali, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. First they referred to Ali and asked him to accept caliphate. Also some Companions of Muhammad tried to persuade him to accept the office.[48][69] But he refused and answered:
Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and colors, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of your affairs. I am better for you as a counselor than as chief.[70]
Then rebels offered caliphate to Talhah and Al-Zubayr and some other companions but they refused it too. Therefore they threatened that, unless the people of Medina choose a caliph within one day, they would be forced to take some drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock all of the Muslims gathered in Mosque of Prophet in 18 June 656CE. (19th Dhu al-Hijjah 35AH.) to chose the caliph. Ali refused to accept caliphate by the fact that the people who pressed him hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. When the notable companions of Muhammad as well as people who live in Medina urged him, however, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf narration Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge but the other narrations claim they didn't do so or even somebody force them to do so. However he and Al-Zubayr later claimed they did so reluctantly. But Ali refused this claim and say they do so voluntarily. Mudelong believe that force didn't use to urge people to give their pledge and they pledge in public in the mosque. While overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures didn't do so. Umayyads, kins of Uthman, escaped to Levant or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas were absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance but both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't do anything against Ali. [3][71] Another prominent figure who was in Mecca at that time and later opposed Ali, was A'isha, Muhammad's widow.
At the beginning Ali told people that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord and he want to purge Islam of all evil from which it had come to suffer. Then warned all concerned that he would tolerate no sedition and all found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly. He advised people to behave as true Muslims. [72]
But he soon found that he was helpless and the prisoner of the people who didn't obey him. The caliphate had come to him as the gift of the rebels and he didn't have enough force to control or punish them. [73] When some people asked Ali to punish who killed Uthamn, Ali answered that "How do I have the power for it while those who assaulted him are in the height of their power. They have superiority over us, not we over them. "[74] Furthermore A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muawiyah I accused him for murder of Uthman and arose civil war, while Ali believe all of them were more deserve to be responsible for it. [75]
Soon thereafter Ali became caliph, Ali dismissed provincial governors who were appointed by Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides. All the governors excepting Muawiya I, the governor of Levant submitted to his orders. The capital of the province of Levant, Damascus, was held by Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.[76][3]
Ali resumed the land which had been granted by Uthman and sweared to resumed whatever some elites had taken before him. He opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues and favored an equal distribution of taxes and booty among the Muslims. When asked him to pay more money to elites he said "Do you command me that I should seek support by oppressing those over whom I have been placed? By Allah, I won't do so as long as the world goes on, and as long as one star leads another in the sky. Even if it were my property, I would have distributed it equally among them, then why not when the property is that of Allah." [77]
Ali believe that people and governors have rights over each other and God created these rights so as to equate with one another. The greatest of these rights that Allah has made obligatory is the right of the ruler over the ruled and the right of the ruled over the ruler. If the ruled fulfill the rights of the ruler and the ruler fulfills their rights, then right attains the position of honor among them, the ways of religion become established, signs of justice become fixed and the sunnah gains currency. He wrote directions for his officials which clearly show what form of regime he wanted to introduce. It was not to be a regime whose officers had an upper hand and were fattened on public money. It was to be a regime where the governed and the tax-payers were at premium. It was their convenience for which the State was to function. It was a welfare-state working solely for the welfare of the people living under its rule, a regime where the rich cannot get richer while the poor are made poorer; a regime where canons of religion hold the balance between the governed and the ruler. He asked people not to speak with him as they spoke with cruel governors and be honest with him. [78]
Ali had decisive beliefs that he shouldn't start the war with other Muslims but when the enemy started it his army wouldn't retreat unless they wanted to attack again. He ordered his soldiers not to kill who would become injured, or not be able to defend himself, or escape from the battlefield and injuries and wanted his warriors not to injure women. [79]
First Fitna |
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| Bassorah – Siffin – Nahrawan |
The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of the caliph Uthman Ibn Affan, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended, on the whole, by Muawiyah I's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is often called the Fitna, and regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. When Ali asked them for obedience and a pledge of allegiance, they refused. The two parties met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious. Later he was challenged by Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān's the ruler of Levant and cousin of Uthman who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. Finally they intended to use arbitration to choose the caliph. On the other hand some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites opposed this decision and rebelled. Ali had to fight with them in Battle of Nahrawan.Ali declared he has removed Fitna "So now, praise and eulogy be to Allah, O' people, I have put out the eye of fitna. No one except me advanced towards it when its gloom was swelling and its madness was intense." But foresaw the worst fitna which would be the fitna of Umayyad and forewarned people that it "would come to you like evil eyed fear and pre-Islamic fragments, wherein there would be no minaret of guidance nor any sign (of salvation) to be seen." [80]
Army of Muawiyah I invaded cities and occupied them or plunder people. But Ali's governors couldn't prevent them and people didn't support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Yemen and some other areas.[81]
This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community and Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate. [82]
On the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, the vigilante Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated Ali with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, injured with the wound from the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE.[83]
In these two days he dictated his will to his household "My advice to you is that you should not consider anyone as a co-worker of the Lord, be firm in your belief that there is One and only One Allah. Do not waste the knowledge given to you by the Muhammad and do not give up and destroy his Sunnah (traditions). Keep these two pillars of Islam (monotheism and Sunnah of the Muhammad) aloft. If you act according to my advice then you cannot be blamed for damaging or destroying the religion." [84]
Many Shi'a believe that Ali didn’t want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and because of that he asked his friends and family members to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam.[85] Most Shi'as accept that Ali was buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.[86]
Upon the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib in Kufa a new caliph should be chosen. As Ali declared in many occasions that just Ahl Al-Bayt of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community the choices restricted to Hasan and his brother Husayn. Thus Kufi Muslims pledge allegiance(bay'ah) to his eldest son Hasan without dispute.[88]
At this time Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, the Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Mu'awiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shi'a. Muawiyah also established Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy.[89] [3]
Madelung writes:
In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vicegerents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[90]
Ali had several wives and Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, was the most beloved one. He had four children born to Fatimah comprising Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other famous sons were Al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um Al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.
Hasan ibn Ali, born in 625, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. During that time Mu'awiayh marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Imam Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Mu'awiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against Hasan. Finally, he was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Mu'awiyah, provided it would again return to Imam Hasan after Mu'awiyah's death. In the year 50 A.H. he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[91]
Husayn ibn Ali, born in 626, was the third Shia Imam. Husayn lived under the most difficult outward conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. After the death of Mu'awiyah, his son, Yazid I, captured the caliphate and wanted the Bay'ah (allegiance) of Husayn ibn Ali. Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam in public and changing the sunnah of Muhammad. Husayn was determined not to give his allegiance to Yazid and knew full well that he would be killed as death was inevitable in the face of the military power of the Umayyads. On the tenth day of Muharram of the year 680 the he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and finally almost all of them were killed in Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims.[92] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed, including the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam among whom was Al-Abbas ibn Ali, famous due to his pure love of Husayn ibn Ali, the holder of Husayn's standard.[93]
His daughter Zaynab bint Ali who was in Karbala was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what had happened to Husayn ibn Ali and his followers. Her sermons in Kufa provoked the people into avenging Hussein's martyrdom. She also delivered a furious sermon in the court of the caliph that made his authority and despotic rule feel undermined.[94]
Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed/sayid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.[1]
The Idrisid and Fatimid dynasties are descended from Ali and many Muslim notables claim to be descendents of Muhammad via his daughter Fatimah and Imam Ali. The late Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and Ali Khamenei, supreme leaders of Iran, Muammar al-Gaddafi president of Libya, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali president of Tunis, The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, the Husseini family of Lebanon, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from Muhammad through Ali and Fatimah.
Descendents of Ali with documented family trees (about 42 generations of an unbroken chain of descent) are often identified by their family trees leading to one of the 12 Shi'a Imams, most notably Imam Musa al-Kazim, Imam Ali al-Rida, and Imam Ali al-Hadi. Most syeds tend to cross-reference their own particular family trees with those of others in order to maintain accuracy and to weed out impostors.
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. All Shia and many Sunnis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..." [95] Ali told people about himself "Ask me before you miss me."[96] Muslims consider him as a foremost authority on the Tafsir (Quranic exegesis), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought. Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression. [3] He also has a high rank position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage to Muhammad through him.[1] Therefor various groups of Muslims have attempted to collect his quotations , narrate his life and recite his sermons. Historians have paid attention to his government, religious scholars tried to learn his knowledge and the men of literate collected his speeches. Sunnis have narrated many hadith trough him from Muhammad in their authentic books. Shias have narrated his quotations in specific books such as "Ghorar Alhakam". In the 7th century Sulaym ibn Qays and `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas narrated his speeches and manners as well as the events which had happened in his life in their works. In the 8th century his descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations which had learnt from their fathers. Some historians such as Abu Mikhnaf narrated the story of major events of Ali's life in his books like Kitab al Jamal, Kitab al-gharat and so on. Even who works in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.[97] Of course Peak of Eloquence(Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's quotations from literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in its preface. While there are many other quotations, prays(Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.[98]
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers like Allameh Tabatabaei Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1]
Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as 'Ali. [1] Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.
The Shias regards Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them Muhammad in his life time suggested on various occasions, that Ali would be the leader of Muslims after his demise like Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Twelve Successors and so on.
According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only rules over the community in justice but also interprets the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was free from error and sin (infallible) and he was appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[103] Ali is known as "perfect man"(Al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.[104]
Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[105] or other Ziyaratnames.[106]
The Sunni Muslims regard Ali as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with the Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman Ibn Affan. [3]
Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that 'Ali inherited from the Prophet the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1] Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.
Sufis have glorified Ali in their works[107]. For example Rumi says in Masnavi:
The man spat in Ali's pure face of every saint and prophet far and wide The prostrates itself before this face... [108]
Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.
Some of the prominent non-Muslim Islamic scholars and politicians like Edward Gibbon[109], Thomas Carlyle[110] and Kofi Annan[111] praised Ali while a few of them, like Lammens[112], have held a negative view of Ali.
Some Islamic Scholars do not accept hadiths collected in later periods, and only study the early collections of narrations. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources". [113]</blockquote>
UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the order of Ali to Malik al-Ashtar (Nahj Al-Balagha letter 53) should be considered as one of the sources of International Law. The United Nations urged the Arab nations to use that letter as a model. [114] The UNDP in its 2002 Arab Human Development listed six sayings of Imam Ali about the importance of knowledge and establishment of ideal governance.[115]
Ali has high position in the mind of Muslims and they made a lot of pictures, poems and myths about him. For example "Ali Guyam, Ali Juyam" (I call Ali, I seek Ali) is a famous rhyme in Iran.
His birthday is celebrated on 13th of Rajab by Muslims all over the world and is a special occasion for Shia Muslims to remember their first Imam who was born in the House of Allah/Kaaba. His death is remembered and mourned from the 19 to 21st of Ramadan which is the anniversary of his assassination and martyrdom.
At the Ali Masjid in Pakistan is a huge boulder which carries the marks of a hand believed to be that of Hadrat (Hazrat) Ali.
Many Muslims (mostly Shia) and some non-muslims (like Hindus in Uttar Pradesh, India) say "Ya Ali Madad" or "Ya Ali", to seek help from Ali in times of difficulty or to seek strength in manual and strenous work, getting relief from pain, etc. This is frowned upon by Sunni Muslims, as it means invoking Ali as if he is God or equal to God.
Several groups of people has recognized Ali as deity. They are known as 'Nusairi' They're described as Ghulat (exaggerators) by Muslims. These groups have gone too far in ascribing divinity to a person, to the (forbidden) point of associating them with God. Almost all of the Muslims don't consider them as Muslim. They were forbidden to practice their own formed religion by Ali himself who commanded them to stop worshiping him as a God and only to follow to teachings of Allah and Muhammad.
The primary sources for scholarship on the life of 'Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are coloured to some extent by a bias, whether positive or negative, toward 'Ali. [1]
. [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/019.smt.html#019.4352 [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/019.smt.html#019.4352|
Ali (c599-661)
Banu Hashim
Cadet branch of the Banu Quraish
Born: March 17 599 Died: February 28 661 |
||
| Shī‘a Islam titles |
||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Muhammad |
Imam 632 – 661 |
Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali Disputed by Nizari |
| Sunni Islam titles |
||
| Preceded by Uthman |
Rashidun Caliph 656 – 661 |
Succeeded by Muawiyah I |
| List of Sahaba |
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Abbad ibn Bishr |
`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib |
`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas |
`Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-Asad |
| Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud |
`Abd Allah ibn Rawahah |
Abd-Allah ibn Sailam |
Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy |
| Abd-Allah ibn Umm-Maktum |
Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr |
Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr |
Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi |
| Abdullah ibn Ja'far |
Abdullah ibn Sailam |
Abu Ayyub al-Ansari |
Abu Bakr |
| Abu Dharr al-Ghifari |
Abu Dujana |
Abu Fuhayra |
Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah |
| Abu Hurairah |
Abu Sufyan ibn Harb |
Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith |
Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib |
| Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah |
Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabiah |
Abu al-Dardaa |
Abu-Hudhayfah ibn Utbah |
| Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari |
Abu-Sa'id al-Khudri |
Akib ibn Usaid |
Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami |
| Al-Baraa ibn Malik al-Ansari |
Al-Nahdiah |
Ali |
Aminah bint Wahab |
| Ammar ibn Yasir |
Amr ibn al-Jamuh |
An-Numan ibn Muqarrin |
Anas ibn Malik |
| Ashaab |
Bashir ibn Sa'ad |
Bilal ibn Ribah |
Bilal ibn al-Harith |
| Fadl ibn Abbas |
Fatima bint Asad |
Fatima bint Hizam |
Fayruz al-Daylami |
| Habibah bint Ubayd-Allah |
Halima Sadia |
Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib |
Harithah bint al-Muammil |
| Hatib ibn Abi Baitah |
Hisham ibn Al-Aas |
Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman |
Hujr ibn Adi |
| Ja`far bin Abī Tālib |
Julaybib |
Khabbab ibn al-Aratt |
Khalid ibn Sa`id |
| Khunais ibn Hudhaifa |
Kumayl ibn Ziyad |
Khuzaymat ibn sabet |
Layla bint al-Minhal |
| Lubaba bint al-Harith |
Lubaynah |
Malik Bin Deenar |
Malik al-Dar |
| Malik ibn Ashter |
Malik ibn Nuwayrah |
Mus`ab ibn `Umair |
Miqdad ibn Aswad |
| Muadh ibn Jabal |
Mughira ibn Shu'ba |
Muhammad Ibn Maslamah |
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr |
| Muhammad ibn Maslamah |
Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid |
Qatadah |
Rab'ah ibn Umayah |
| Rabi'ah ibn al-Harith |
Sa`ad ibn ar-Rabi` |
Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas |
Saffiyah bint ‘Abd al-Muttalib |
| Said ibn Aamir al-Jumahi |
Sa'id ibn Zayd |
Salim Mawla Abu Hudhayfah |
Salman the Persian |
| Suhayb ar-Rumi |
Ubaydah ibn al-Harith |
Umamah bint Zainab |
Umar |
| Umm Kulthum bint Ali |
Umm Kulthum bint Jarwila Khuzima |
Umm Shareek |
Umm Ubays |
| `Uqbah ibn Amir |
Urwah ibn Mas'ud |
Usama ibn Zayd |
Utbah ibn Ghazwan |
| Uthman ibn Hunaif |
Wahb ibn Abd Manaf |
Zayd ibn Arqam |
Zayd ibn Harithah |
| Zayd ibn Thabit |
Zaynab bint Ali |
||
| List of Ali's companions | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Abu Dharr al-Ghifari |
Khuzayma ibn Thabit |
Miqdad ibn Aswad |
Salman the Persian |
| Ammar ibn Yasir |
Malik al-Ashtar |
Habib ibn Mazahir |
Kumayl ibn Ziyad |
| Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr |
Sa'sa'ah ibn Suhan |
Zayd ibn Suhan |
Hisham ibn 'Utbah |
| Abdullah ibn Budayl |
Meesam Tammar |
Adi ibn Hatim |
Hujr ibn Adi |
| Asbagh ibn Nubatah |
al-Harith al-A'war al-Hamdani |
Amr ibn al-Humq al-Khaza'i |
Abdullah ibn Hashim |
| Uways al-Qarni |
`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas |
Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali |
|
| Uthman ibn Hunaif |
Mikhnaf ibn Sulaym |
Sulayman ibn Surad |
Jundab ibn Abdullah |
| Sulaym ibn Qays |
|||
| This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors). |  |
| Ali | |
|---|---|
| File:Meshed ali usnavy (PD).jpg | |
| This mosque near An Najaf, Iraq, is believed by Shias to house the tombstone of Ali | |
| Reign | 656 – 661 |
| Full name | ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib |
| Titles | Amir al-Mu'minin |
| Born | March 17, 599 |
| Birthplace | Mecca |
| Died | February 28, 661 |
| Place of death | Kufa |
| Buried | Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq |
| Predecessor | Prophet Mohammed |
| Successor | Hasan ibn Ali |
| Wife | Fatimah |
| Offspring |
Hassan Husayn |
| Royal House |
Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim |
| Father | Abu Talib |
| Mother | Fatima bint Asad |
Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib) (علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب) (Approximately: March 17, 599 - February 28, 661)[1] was an early Islamic leader. He was the fourth Sunni caliph and the first Shia imam.
Contents |
   | Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib - Nahjul Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) |
| | Biography from USC's MSA website - CRCC: Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement : Resources : Religious Texts: Islamic Texts |
| | Ali ibn Abi Talib - banned interdit verboden prohibido vietato proibido |
| | 5.57.50 - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan - Al-Mizan By Allamah Tabatabai |
| | 031.5920 - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | Event of Ghadir Khumm - Event of Ghadir Khumm in the Qur'an, Hadith, History |
| | Imam Ali foundation - Imam Ali Foundation - London |
| | 4.53.325 - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | Book 80 - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | Sayings of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib - Sayings of Imam Ali (AS) |
| | Ali - Ali (Muslim caliph) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia |
| | Nahj al-Balagha, Sermon 3 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | list of Martyrs of Karbala - Karbala's Martyrs |
| | Reign of Abubeker; A.D. 632, June 7. - The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire Chapter 50 |
| | Shi'a encyclopedia - ['Aalim Network QR] Silence of Imam Ali (AS) |
| | Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib - Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib |
| | The Caliphate of Umar - The Caliphate of Umar |
| | Sermon about the Oneness of Allah - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | A advice ti his son Hasan ib Ali - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Order to Maalik al-Ashtar, governor of Egypt - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Beyt Al-Hikama, Virtual library of witness pioneer - Khalifa Ali bin Talib |
| | The Glimpses of Nahj al Balaghah Part I - Introduction - Introduction - The Nahj al Balaghah |
| | Ali ibn Abi Talib - ʿALĪ B |
| | The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali b. Abu Talib - The Life of the Commander of the Faithful |
| | Tabatabae (1979), page 40 - PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SHI'ISM |
| | Tabatabae (1979), page 192 - CHAPTER VII ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE IMAM (IMAMOLOGY) (part-2) |
| | Tabatabae (1979), page 196 - 201 - CHAPTER VII ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE IMAM (IMAMOLOGY) (part-2) |
| | Sermon of Lady Zaynab in the court of Yazid - A Probe Into The History of Ashura |
| | Sermon 145 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Sermon 133 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Sermon 73 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Fatima Bint Muhammad - CRCC: Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement : Resources : Religious Texts: Islamic Texts |
| | Sermon 91 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Nahj Al-Balagha, sermon 167 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Sermon Sermon 92 and 188 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Letter 14 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Sermon 238 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Sermon 163 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Letter 37 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | Chapter 23 - Restatement of History of Islam and Muslims |
| | The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims - Qur'an in Islam |
| | World of Tasawwuf - World of Tasawwuf | In the time of the Prophet, Tasawwuf was a reality without a name, today Tasawwuf is a name, but few know its Reality |
| | = 23 Letter 23 - Nahj ul Balagha - Peak of Eloquence- Sermons, Letters, Sayings by Immam Ali (a.s) |
| | www.al-islam.org - Ninth Session, Part 8 |
| | Tasbih-e-Fatima - Fatima ['a] The Gracious |
| | Moral Stories - Birth of Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib - Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib (AS), Prophet Mohammad (pbuh), Kaabah, Fatima bint-e-Asad, Nahjul Balagha, the first Imam and second Infallible |
| | The First Imam - Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib (AS) - Amir-ul-Mo'mineen |
| | Reasons for the battle of Uhud - History of Islam and Muslims, The second battle of Islam at Uhud, Battle of Ohod |
| | The Battle of Uhud - The Battle of Ohod |
| | The Prophet - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | ''Ali, The Voice of Human Justice'' - Amazon.com: The Voice of Human Justice: George Jordac: Books |
| | this - Twenty Three Years: |
| | ''Nahj al Balagha, Letter 62'' - Nahjul Balaagha - Letter 62 |
| | Election of Ali as Caliph - Election of Ali as the Caliph |
| | ref - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | ref - Restatement of History of Islam and Muslims |
| | 3:61 - CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts |
| | ''Ali, The Voice of Human Justice'' - Amazon.com: The Voice of Human Justice: George Jordac: Books |
| | The Battle of Badr - The Battle of Badr |
 | shianews.com - banned interdit verboden prohibido vietato proibido |
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