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This article is about the social science. For other uses, see Anthropology (disambiguation).
 
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences.[1] The term "anthropology", pronounced /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/, is from the Greek ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, "human", and -λογία, -logia, "discourse" or "study", and was first used by François Péron when discussing his encounters with Tasmanian Aborigines.[2]
Anthropology's basic concerns are "What defines Homo sapiens?", "Who are the ancestors of modern Homo sapiens?", "What are humans' physical traits?", "How do humans behave?", "Why are there variations and differences among different groups of humans?", "How has the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens influenced its social organization and culture?" and so forth.
In the United States, contemporary anthropology is typically divided into four sub-fields: cultural anthropology (also called "social anthropology"), archaeology, linguistic anthropology and biological/physical anthropology.[3] The so-called "four-field" approach to anthropology is reflected in many undergraduate textbooks[4] as well as anthropology programs (e.g. Michigan, Berkeley, Penn, etc.). At universities in the United Kingdom, and much of Europe, these "sub-fields" are frequently housed in separate departments and are seen as distinct disciplines.[5]
The social and cultural sub-field has been heavily influenced by post-modern theories. During the 1970s and 1980s there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline.[6] During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in Cultural and Social Anthropology. In contrast, Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, and linguistic anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, anthropology as a discipline has lacked cohesion over the last several decades. This has even led to departments diverging, for example in the 1998-9 academic year at Stanford University, where the "scientists" and "non-scientists" divided into two departments: Anthropology, and Cultural and Social Anthropology.[7] (Anthropology at Stanford later reunified in the 2008-9 academic year)[8]

Contents

Overview

Anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields, each with its own further branches: biological or physical anthropology, social anthropology or cultural anthropology, archaeology and anthropological linguistics.[3] These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.
Biological anthropology or Physical anthropology, focuses on the study of human populations using an evolutionary framework. Biological anthropologists have theorized about how the globe has become populated with humans (e.g. the "Out of Africa" and "multi-regional evolution" debate), as well as tried to explain geographical human variation and race. Many biological anthropologists studying modern human populations identify their field as human ecology - itself linked to sociobiology. Human ecology uses evolutionary theory to understand phenomena among contemporary human populations. Another large sector of biological anthropology is primatology, where anthropologists focus on understanding other primate populations. Methodologically, primatologists borrow heavily from field biology and ecology in their research.
Cultural anthropology is also called socio-cultural anthropology or social anthropology (especially in Great Britain). It is the study of culture, and is often based on ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and a product of research, namely a monograph or book. Ethnography is a grounded, inductive method, that heavily relies on participant-observation. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. In some European countries, all cultural anthropology is known as ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783).[9]
The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of cultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Cultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).
Archaeology is the study of human material culture, including both artifacts (older pieces of human culture) carefully gathered in situ, museum pieces and modern garbage.[10] Archaeologists work closely with biological anthropologists, art historians, physics laboratories (for dating), and museums. They are charged with preserving the results of their excavations and are often found in museums. Typically, archaeologists are associated with "digs," or excavation of layers of ancient sites.
Archaeologists subdivide time into cultural periods based on long-lasting artifacts: the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, the Bronze Age, which are further subdivided according to artifact traditions and culture region, such as the Oldowan or the Gravettian. In this way, archaeologists provide a vast frame of reference for the places human beings have traveled, their ways of making a living, and their demographics. Archaeologists also investigate nutrition, symbolization, art, systems of writing, and other physical remnants of human cultural activity.
Linguistic anthropology (also called anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. .It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes.^ POPULATION IN ANTHROPOLOGY Population composition and processes, their relationship to problems of anthropological interest.

 ^ Because of its vast subject matter, Anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields: Social-Cultural Anthropology, Archaeology, Physical Anthropology and Anthropological Linguistics.

 ^ STRATEGIES IN SOCIOCULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY II: RESEARCH DESIGN AND ANALYSIS Design of field research projects, including problems of operationalization and validity as well as methods of quantitative and non-quantitative data collection and analysis.

 Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.[11]
Linguistic anthropology is divided into its own sub-fields: descriptive linguistics the construction of grammars and lexicons for unstudied languages; historical linguistics, including the reconstruction of past languages, from which our current languages have descended; ethnolinguistics, the study of the relationship between language and culture, and sociolinguistics, the study of the social functions of language. Anthropological linguistics is also concerned with the evolution of the parts of the brain that deal with language.[12]
Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of Anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy and religious studies,[13][14] it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.[15]
On the one hand this has led to instability in many American anthropology departments, resulting in the division or reorganization of sub-fields (e.g. at Stanford, Duke, and most recently at Harvard).[16] However, seen in a positive light, anthropology is one of the few place in many American universities where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another. As such, anthropology has also been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, human-computer interaction, and various ethnic studies.

Basic trends

There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.[citation needed] The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place or thing in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia.
The specific focus of social and cultural anthropology has significantly changed. Initially the sub-field was focused on the study of cultures around the world.
In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.[17]
Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation[18] and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures)[19] They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Due to the interest in variation, anthropologists are drawn to the study of human extremes, aberrations and other unusual circumstances, such as headhunting, whirling dervishes, whether there were real Hobbit people, snake handling, and glossolalia (speaking in tongues), just to list a few.
At the same time, anthropologists urge, as part of their quest for scientific objectivity, cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that particular cultures should not be judged by one culture's values or viewpoints, but that all cultures should be viewed as relative to each other. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.[20]
Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, mutilation including circumcision and subincision, and torture. Topics like racism, slavery or human sacrifice, therefore, attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies[21] to genes[22] to acculturation have been proposed, not to mention theories of colonialism and many others as root causes of Man's inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.[23]
Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levallois help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to Culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science.
Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association, which was founded in 1903.[24] Membership is made up of Anthropologists from around the globe.[25] Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.[26]

History

Main article: History of anthropology
The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humankind was apparently in 1593, the first of the "logies" to be coined.[27] It took Immanuel Kant 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View.[28] Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, however, as he never left his region of Germany nor did he study any cultures besides his own, and in fact, describes the need for anthropology as a corollary field to his own primary field of philosophy.[29] He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Anthropology is thus primarily an Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment endeavor.
Historians of anthropology, like Marvin Harris,[30] indicate two major frameworks within which empirical anthropology has arisen: interest in comparisons of people over space and interest in longterm human processes or humans as viewed through time. .Harris dates both to Classical Greece and Classical Rome, specifically Herodotus, often called the "father of history" and the Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote many of our only surviving contemporary accounts of several ancient Celtic and Germanic peoples.^ Ancient Greece and Rome MINOR REVISION .
  • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

 Herodotus first formulated some of the persisting problems of anthropology.[31]
Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography. John of Plano Carpini reported of his stay among the Mongols. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture![32]
Marco Polo's systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space.[33] Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he met as he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology."[34]
Another candidate for one of the first scholars to carry out comparative ethnographic-type studies in person was the medieval Persian scholar Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī in the 11th century, who wrote about the peoples, customs, and religions of the Indian subcontinent. Like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, and presented his findings with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons.[35] .He wrote detailed comparative studies on the religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and especially South Asia.^ Department of South Asia Regional Studies .
  • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [36][37] Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the Muslim world through to Ibn Khaldun's work in the 14th century.[35][38]
Most scholars[citation needed] consider modern anthropology as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment, a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior, the known varieties of which had been increasing since the 15th century as a result of the first European colonization wave. .The traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology, and sociology then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the social sciences, of which anthropology was a part.^ Earthwatch supports labor intensive research that spans many of the social sciences and humanities, including (but not limited to) cultural, economic, medical and physical anthropology, archaeology, architecture, ethnomusicology, textiles and costume, folklore and oral history, public health, sustainable development, agriculture, and alternative energy.
  • Michigan State University Libraries - Anthropology Grants 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC staff.lib.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Cultural anthropology ; in social science: Developmentalism ) ethics ( in ethics (philosophy): Anthropology and ethics ) Human Genome Project ( in Human Genome Project (scientific project): Impact on law and the social sciences ) science and race ( in race (human): The influence of Franz Boas ) People .
  • anthropology -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Anthropology and the Bushman covers early travellers and settlers, classic nineteenth and twentieth-century ethnographers, North American and Japanese ecological traditions, the approaches of African ethnographers, and recent work on advocacy and social development.
.Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of Classics and Egyptology informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures.^ Associate Professor of East Asian Languages & Cultures, .
  • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ South Asian Languages VERY MINOR REVISION .
  • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ South Asian Regional Studies .
  • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

 At the same time, the Romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline.
Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia
Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of natural history (expounded by authors such as Buffon) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. .Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations.^ Becky Sigmon has dedicated her career to the study of human evolution, in particular the origin of erect bipedal posture and locomotion in hominids.
  • Nelson Education - Human Evolution and Prehistory, Second Canadian Edition 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.humanevolution2e.nelson.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Reports and memoranda from the files of the British colonial administration in Nigeria, used in an ethnographic survey of Africa south of the Sahara for the International African Institute.

 ^ The program's curriculum includes archaeological explorations of past cultures, human biocultural development, and studies of diverse lifeways of the world's populations.
There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved according to certain principles and that could be observed empirically. .In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places.^ These expeditions performed extensive archaeological, geological and topographical exploration, and conducted important studies of Peruvian flora, fauna, and native inhabitants.

 ^ Those are some of the eye-opening conclusions released today in a report on an in-depth study of eight flagship journals in the humanities and social sciences.
  • Open Access Anthropology — Promoting Open Access in Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC blog.openaccessanthropology.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Study of basic linguistic concepts in cultural contexts; an examination of language diversity and socio-cultural factors of language use.
  • Anthropology 16 September 2009 22:022 UTC www.csun.edu [Source type: Academic]
Early anthropology was divided between proponents of unilinealism, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as diffusionism.[39] .Most 19th-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past.^ Always based on case studies, it aspires to shed light on the most diverse aspects of contemporary European societies through its thematically oriented issues.
  • SocioSite: CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.sociosite.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Foundations of Social Theory (4) Important early social theorists (Marx, Engels, Freud, Durkheim, Weber) and the historical conditions in which the study of society emerged in Western thought.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The truth is until the Europeans came most "tribes" were not tribes – at least not from the Indians point of view.
  • Basic cultural anthroplogy, Texas Indians 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.texasindians.com [Source type: Original source]
As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the 19th century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism has been that many social science scholars (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focus disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focuses disproportionately on the "Other";[40] this has changed over the last part of the 20th century as anthropologists increasingly also study Western subjects, particularly variation across class, region, or ethnicity within Western societies, and other social scientists increasingly take a global view of their fields.

20th century

.In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains.^ HISTORY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THOUGHT Anthropological thought in West from earliest times to present: 19th and 20th centuries, corresponding to period of emergence of anthropology as academic discipline.

 ^ As more anthropologists became full-time academics in the twentieth century, concern for making knowledge public sometimes lapsed.
  • Table of Contents and Excerpt, González, Anthropologists in the Public Sphere 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.utexas.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The science of anthropology is divided into two major disciplines, physical anthropology and cultural anthropology.

 The natural and biological sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. .The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.^ Traditional Technologies (4) Explores 2.5 million years of human technologies through analysis and replication of stone, bone, shell, and wood tools as well as basketry and ceramics.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These four fields are archaeology , the exploration of past human cultures through their material remains; linguistics , the study of language; physical anthropology, the study of human biology and evolution; and, cultural anthropology, the study of the customs and traditions of human social groups.
  • Online Preview - Margaret Mead: Human Nature and the Power of Culture (Library of Congress Exhibition) 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.loc.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In this seminar we shall study the warp and weft of human existence by crisscrossing between the anthropology of art and the art of anthropology.
The social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences. In particular, social sciences often develop statistical descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.[41]
Anthropology as it emerged amongst the Western colonial powers (mentioned above) has generally taken a different path than that in the countries of southern and central Europe (Italy, Greece, and the successors to the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires). In the former, the encounter with multiple, distinct cultures, often very different in organization and language from those of Europe, has led to a continuing emphasis on cross-cultural comparison and a receptiveness to certain kinds of cultural relativism.[42]
In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in building nationalist perspectives. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk culture, and representing the prehistory of what has become a nation through various forms of public education (eg, museums of several kinds).[43]
In this scheme, Russia occupied a middle position. On the one hand, it had a large region (largely east of the Urals) of highly distinct, pre-industrial, often non-literate peoples, similar to the situation in the Americas. On the other hand, Russia also participated to some degree in the nationalist (cultural and political) movements of Central and Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of 1917, anthropology in the USSR, and later the Soviet Bloc countries, were highly shaped by the requirement to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution.[44]

Countries

Britain

E. B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist.
E. B. Tylor ( 2 October 1832 – 2 January 1917) and James George Frazer ( 1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) are generally considered the antecedents to modern social anthropology in Britain. Though Tylor undertook a field trip to Mexico, both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive reading, not fieldwork, mainly the Classics (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists.
Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind".[45] Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of cultural diffusionism, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [sic] to another."[46]
Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."[47] .However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists.^ But while anthropologists have long rejected the notion that cultures are discrete, bounded, and rule-drive entities, medical anthropology has been slower to develop alternative approaches to understanding cultures of health.

 ^ Initially, feminist anthropology focused on analysis and development of theory to explain the subordination of women, which seemed to be universal and cross-cultural.
  • Feminist Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Attention is centered on cultural differences, particulars, and peculiarities, and culture is often treated as if it developed quixotically, without determinable causes, or else appeared full-blown.” ( Theory of Culture Change , p.
  • Anthropology Today: The Flight from Materialism and Evolutionism by Evelyn Reed 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.marxists.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious feelings in human beings, proposing a theory of animism as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.
Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were particularly interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements and institutions fit together. Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative.
.Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (synchronic analysis, rather than diachronic or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork.^ Their writings have little more theoretical foundation or historical framework than a Boy Scout manual on how to make Indian objects and imitate their dances.
  • Anthropology Today: The Flight from Materialism and Evolutionism by Evelyn Reed 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.marxists.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ While some anthropologists studied the “folk” traditions in Europe and America, most were concerned with documenting how people lived in nonindustrial settings outside these areas.
  • anthropology -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Application for graduation with honors must be made through the student’s departmental adviser no later than winter term of the senior year.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 Cambridge University financed a multidisciplinary expedition to the Torres Strait Islands in 1898, organized by Alfred Court Haddon and including a physician-anthropologist, William Rivers, as well as a linguist, a botanist, other specialists. .The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.^ He sets the standards for ecological description with detailed maps of topography, land use, and village boundaries (Netting 1996:268).
  • Ecological Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]
A decade and a half later, Polish anthropology student Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of fieldwork in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in New Guinea. .As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years.^ England's enigmatic Stonehenge served as a burial ground from its earliest beginnings and for several hundred years thereafter, new research indicates .
  • Anthropology: News & Videos about Anthropology - CNN.com 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC topics.cnn.com [Source type: News]

 ^ Galdikas currently teaches human origins and primate behaviour at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia for several months of the year.
  • Nelson Education - Human Evolution and Prehistory, Second Canadian Edition 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.humanevolution2e.nelson.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The course focuses on the colonies, dominions, and protectorates of the former British Empire in the Pacific, but comparative readings will draw also on Africa and India.
  • COURSES-Anthropology Program at Bard 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC anthropology.bard.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [48]
He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by British anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) advocated an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through participant observation. Theoretically, he advocated a functionalist interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs.
British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the Interwar period, with key contributions coming from the Polish-British Bronisław Malinowski and Meyer Fortes[49]
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the Andaman Islands in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists Émile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply The Andaman Islanders) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. .Over time, he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously.^ This course is an introduction to the development of social and cultural theory from its foundation in the Enlightenment in Europe, the evolutionism of the 19th century, the foundational work of Marx, Weber and Durkheim to the three main schools of anthropology in its formative years: the development of American cultural anthropology under Boas, British structural-functionalism, and the Année Sociologique of Durkheim and his students in France.
  • Anthro87.html 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.macalester.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Her fieldwork with Native Americans and other groups led her to develop the "configurational approach" to culture, seeing cultural systems as working to favor certain personality types among different societies (Buckner 1997: 34).
  • Feminist Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Anthropology and the Bushman covers early travellers and settlers, classic nineteenth and twentieth-century ethnographers, North American and Japanese ecological traditions, the approaches of African ethnographers, and recent work on advocacy and social development.

 .(This contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French structuralism, which examined the conceptual structures in language and symbolism.^ However, Levi-Strausss application of the principles of structural linguistics produced quite a different picture of the underlying laws that govern kinship relations.
  • anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.angelfire.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ There is, moreover, extreme difference in the grammatical structure both of words and sentences in various languages.

 )
.Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions.^ Evolutionary, diffusionist, psychological, cross-cultural, functionalist, structuralist, and hermeneutical approaches will be considered through selected writings from such major figures as Tylor, Durkheim, Boas, Kroeber, Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown, and Lévi-Strauss.

 ^ For instance A. R. Radcliffe-Brown in the 1930s had said that the unit of structure from which social relations are built up is the "elementary family" consisting of "a man and his wife and their child or children."
  • anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.angelfire.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In addition to the excavation and lab sessions, students participate in an ongoing project in the local schools, in which they train young students in archaeological techniques at the excavation and in their classrooms.
  • COURSES-Anthropology Program at Bard 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC anthropology.bard.edu [Source type: Academic]

 This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the British Commonwealth. .From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA).^ Until the science of anthropology likewise discovers the secrets of the social cradle of humanity, it lacks such a solid foundation.
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 ^ Also, in the 1920s, Montagu studied under the founders of British social anthropology at the London School of Economics.
  • Nelson Education - Human Evolution and Prehistory, Second Canadian Edition 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.humanevolution2e.nelson.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Relevant Web Sites   The Association of Female Anthropologists Webpage at the American Anthropology Association Three Generations of Women Anthropologists :  Celebration of Women Anthropologists British and Commonwealth Women Anthropologists in the Late Colonial Period   .
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 Famous ethnographies include The Nuer, by Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, and The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi, by Meyer Fortes; well-known edited volumes include African Systems of Kinship and Marriage and African Political Systems.
Max Gluckman, together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities.
In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of Christianity, the growth of cultural relativism, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of diachronic modes of analysis with synchronic, all of which are central to modern culture."[50]
Later in the 1960s and 1970s, Edmund Leach and his students Mary Douglas and Nur Yalman, among others, introduced French structuralism in the style of Lévi-Strauss; while British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics, differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. .Today, social anthropology in Britain engages internationally with many other social theories and has branched in many directions.^ Darwin argued that man is an animal and has many of the same instincts and needs as do other social animals.

 ^ Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology at the University of Oxford Information on post graduate study and research; abstracts of theses of anthropological research, and links to other anthropological sites.
  • SocioSite: CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.sociosite.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Recuperates valuable legacies from classic anthropology and conjoins them with insights from social and literary theory for analyzing contemporary formations of belief, practice, and power.
In countries of the British Commonwealth, social anthropology has often been institutionally separate from physical anthropology and primatology, which may be connected with departments of biology or zoology; and from archaeology, which may be connected with departments of Classics, Egyptology, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of folklore, museum studies, human geography, sociology, social relations, ethnic studies, cultural studies, and social work.

United States

19th Century to 1940s

From its beginnings in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States was influenced by the presence of Native American societies.
Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"
.Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects.^ Cultural anthropology - - American cultural anthropology .
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 ^ Cultural anthropology ; in social science: Developmentalism ) ethics ( in ethics (philosophy): Anthropology and ethics ) Human Genome Project ( in Human Genome Project (scientific project): Impact on law and the social sciences ) science and race ( in race (human): The influence of Franz Boas ) People .
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 ^ A very ethnocentric way of referring to other cultures because it ranks cultures below those of the "First World" like Europe, Japan, Canada, and the United States.
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 The field was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, men such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing.
Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881), a lawyer from Rochester, New York, became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the Iroquois. .His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology.^ Because of its vast subject matter, Anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields: Social-Cultural Anthropology, Archaeology, Physical Anthropology and Anthropological Linguistics.

 ^ Anthropology, especially when it has an environmental focus, also demonstrates the importance of preserving cultural diversity.
  • Ecological Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The Specialist Program in Medical Anthropology integrates the fields of Social-Cultural Anthropology, Physical Anthropology, and Archaeology by taking health, medicine, and disease as a focus for anthropological studies.

 Like other scholars of his day (such as Edward Tylor), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from savagery, to barbarism, to civilization. .Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.^ Our strategy -- as defined by this very positive transaction -- is to use distribution, customer service, marketing and technology to become the casino company of choice for our target players.
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 ^ At intervals new arts and ideas appear, such as agriculture and pasturage, the manufacture of pottery, the use of metal implements and the device of record and communication by picture writing.

 ^ Moreover, it is becoming increasingly clear that behaviours such as tool-use are much more widespread across the animal kingdom, as this recent article on stingrays indicates.
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 [51]

Boasian anthropology

.Franz Boas established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective.^ Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was once termed the "dean of American anthropology" and as L.A. White (1900-1975) has written: "Morgan fell into disrepute in the United States when Franz Boas and his students rose to ascendency in anthropological science.
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 ^ Webster University, founded in 1915, is a private, multi-campus and international institution with academic programs in 106 locations in the United States, Europe, and Asia.
  • Applied Anthropology and Social Science Employment 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.sfaa.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Anthropology of the United States (4) Explores the culture and the political economy of the contemporary United States, with a particular focus on race, class, and gender relations.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, .Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature.^ Introduction to medical anthropology, the study of the interaction of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors in human promotion of health and adaptation to disease.
  • Anthropology 16 September 2009 22:022 UTC www.csun.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Attention will be on behavioral, material, affective, symbolic, and ideological aspects of human-animal relationships, as well as both the animalic nature of humanity and humanity’s inclination to anthropomorphize animality.

 ^ Morphological, genetic, and physiological aspects of human biological variability; the concept and description of race; the interaction of cultural and environmental factors in human biological adaptation.
  • Anthropology 16 September 2009 22:022 UTC www.csun.edu [Source type: Academic]
.Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct cultures, rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had.^ Arabian Women / Overcoming Traditional Barriers : A 5 page discussion of how women in the Middle East are finally beginning to transcend cultural restrictions and acquire rights that they never had before.
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 ^ Their writings have little more theoretical foundation or historical framework than a Boy Scout manual on how to make Indian objects and imitate their dances.
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 ^ Boas and his students (representing historical particularism) argue that cultures are unique and cannot be compared (Barfield 1997:491).
  • Ecological Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.^ Boas and his students (representing historical particularism) argue that cultures are unique and cannot be compared (Barfield 1997:491).
  • Ecological Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.as.ua.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Medical CAT scans like those done in hospitals show a cross-section of a patient’s body with 1-2 mm resolution.
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 ^ Having rejected any general view of social evolution, they limit themselves to the study of the cultures and customs of separate peoples and groups.
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In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas.[52] Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (e.g. archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture.
Ruth Benedict in 1937
Boas used his positions at Columbia University and the American Museum of Natural History to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. .They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process.^ They provide no unifying thread, no guiding line, no definitive acquisitions and advances from one stage to the next in a progressive process of evolution.
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 ^ Evolutionary Theory (4) Provides a theoretical framework in evolutionary biology with which to explore human evolutionary history and aspects of modern human biology.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish linguistics as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on Indo-European languages.^ However, his strongest evidence to support his belief in an Asian origin ( via the Bering Strait) of the Native Americans was from his study of Indian languages.
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 ^ In examining how the science of language bears on the general problems of anthropology, it is not necessary to discuss at length the critical questions which arise, the principal.

 ^ Areas of specialization : The history and culture of Native American communities as well as the European and American exploration, settlement, and development of the Trans-Mississippi West from Mexico to the Arctic Circle.
The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook, Anthropology, marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. .This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict.^ Anthropologists are the persons who study cultures.
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 ^ James Frazer’s Golden Bough, Margaret Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa, and Ruth Benedict’s Patterns of Culture sold thousands upon thousands of copies.

 ^ Margaret Mead, E. Sapir, Ruth Benedict and other students of Boas are the principal representatives of this new current.
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 Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.
Though such works as Coming of Age in Samoa and The Chrysanthemum and the Sword remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH.

Canada

.Canadian anthropology began, as in other parts of the Colonial world, as ethnological data in the records of travellers and missionaries.^ Missionaries often lived among the peoples they served and were ideally suite d to observe and record anthropologically interesting data.

 ^ A publicly engaged anthropology is more necessary now than ever before—not in spite of, but because of, what some call corporate colonialism and what others call free trade.
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 ^ The twin stars of anthropology in the English-speaking world in the latter part of the nineteenth century were Morgan in the United States and Tyler in England.
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 In Canada, Jesuit missionaries such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 1600s, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Domain of Canada.
True anthropology began with a Government department: the Geological Survey of Canada, and George Mercer Dawson (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. .This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910. Anthropologists were recruited from England and the USA, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology.^ The Major Program in Anthropology provides a course structure for those students desiring to expand upon or supplement other areas of academic interest by taking advantage of Anthropology's unique global, chronological and biological perspective on humankind.

 ^ It is directed toward students who require formal scientific training within the major to prepare them for careers or advanced studies with a scientific focus in anthropology or other disciplines.

 ^ The survey said that by the year 2000, some 90% of the U.S. population will be within 200 miles of casino-style gambling.
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 Scholars include the linguist and Boasian Edward Sapir.

France

Émile Durkheim
.Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology.^ Because of its vast subject matter, Anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields: Social-Cultural Anthropology, Archaeology, Physical Anthropology and Anthropological Linguistics.

 ^ Other panelists have maintained that because of the American tradition of infant male circumcision, as well as the genital cosmetic surgery that some American women voluntarily undergo, those who argue against FGC speak from glass houses.
  • Concurring Opinions » Anthropologists Debate Female Circumcision 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.concurringopinions.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ It means moving beyond disciplinary defined problems to the problems of the world – the problems that interest others, rather than the problems that interest us as anthropologists.
Most commentators consider Marcel Mauss (1872–1950), nephew of the influential sociologist Émile Durkheim to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's Année Sociologique group; and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as Henri Hubert and Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states.
Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: Essay on the Gift a seminal analysis of exchange and reciprocity, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.[53]
Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration. Marcel Griaule and Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ethnologie was restricted to museums, such as the Musée de l'Homme founded by Paul Rivet, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore.
.Above all, however, it was Claude Lévi-Strauss who helped institutionalize anthropology in France.^ In France, Claude Lévi-Strauss and Pierre Bourdieu published frequently in Le Monde and other periodicals.
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 ^ Note: Limited to graduate students, who will also be expected to attend all Anthropology 1630 lectures.

 ^ Limited to graduate students, who will also be expected to attend all Anthropology 1640 lectures.

 Along with the enormous influence his structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as Maurice Godelier and Françoise Héritier who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories (CNRS) rather than academic departments in universities.
Other influential writers in the 1970s include Pierre Clastres, who explains in his books on the Guayaki tribe in Paraguay that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the state. .Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of authority as a separate function from society.^ Just seven years later, more than 80 of these floating casinos ply the waterways of six states, from Illinois to Mississippi [ stress added]."
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 ^ For public anthropology objectivity lies less in the pronouncements of authorities than in conversations among concerned parties.

 .The leader is only a spokesperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.^ The obvious conclusion from this, that no group was inferior to any other, motivated her to register in the honours anthropology program.
  • Nelson Education - Human Evolution and Prehistory, Second Canadian Edition 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.humanevolution2e.nelson.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ A respected and older person may be looked to for leadership, but the person has no formalized authority.
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 ^ Some pathological lesions produced by or related to human activities, including dietary aspects, can be treated, and social support can be provided by relatives or other members of the social group.
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 [54]
.The most important French social theorist since Foucault and Lévi-Strauss is Pierre Bourdieu, who trained formally in philosophy and sociology and eventually held the Chair of Sociology at the Collège de France.^ In France, Claude Lévi-Strauss and Pierre Bourdieu published frequently in Le Monde and other periodicals.
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 ^ Foundations of Social Theory (4) Important early social theorists (Marx, Engels, Freud, Durkheim, Weber) and the historical conditions in which the study of society emerged in Western thought.
  • Anthropology | 2009–10 University of Oregon Catalog 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC uocatalog.uoregon.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In 1839, in Volume IV of Cours de Philosophie Positive (or System of Positive Polity), Comte coined the term sociologie to serve as an equivalent to "social physics" (which came from Comte and St. Simon).
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 .Like Mauss and others before him, however, he worked on topics both in sociology and anthropology.^ A publicly engaged anthropology is more necessary now than ever before—not in spite of, but because of, what some call corporate colonialism and what others call free trade.
  • Table of Contents and Excerpt, González, Anthropologists in the Public Sphere 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.utexas.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ To anthropology, however, in its more general sense as the natural history of man, ethnology and ethnography may both be considered to belong, being related as parts to a whole.

 .His fieldwork among the Kabyles of Algeria places him solidly in anthropology, while his analysis of the function and reproduction of fashion and cultural capital in European societies places him as solidly in sociology.^ Exclusion: ANT100Y, ANT101H ANTA02H3 Introduction to Anthropology: Society, Culture and Language An introduction to socio-cultural anthropology.

 ^ The over-arching theme for this year’s scholars is Sustainable Societies: Building social, cultural, and environmental capital in a globalized world.
  • Applied Anthropology and Social Science Employment 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.sfaa.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Linguistic Pragmatics and Cultural Analysis in Anthropology] Catalog Number: 4411 Steven C. Caton Half course (fall term).

Other countries

Anthropology in Greece and Portugal is much influenced by British anthropology.[citation needed] In Greece, there was since the 19th century a science of the folklore called laographia (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".[55] In Italy, the development of ethnology and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning.[56]
.Germany and Norway are the countries that showed the most division and conflict between scholars focusing on domestic socio-cultural issues and scholars focusing on "other" societies.^ Exclusion: ANT100Y, ANT101H ANTA02H3 Introduction to Anthropology: Society, Culture and Language An introduction to socio-cultural anthropology.

 ^ ANTC06H3 African Cultures and Societies II: Case Studies Complements ANTB05H by giving closer examination to selected issues in African ethnography.

 ^ The over-arching theme for this year’s scholars is Sustainable Societies: Building social, cultural, and environmental capital in a globalized world.
  • Applied Anthropology and Social Science Employment 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.sfaa.net [Source type: Academic]

 [citation needed]

Post-World War II

.Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions.^ Both affinities and differences between art-making and anthropology will be considered, as well as alternative means of apprehending and expressing aesthetic and social experience cross-culturally.

 ^ (Imagine explaining the meaning of cultural relativism or social solidarity or the significance of clans to a person who has never taken an anthropology course or read a book on the topic.
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 ^ Women in Kenya : 6 pages worth of compiled research and information on the social role of women in Kenya, their high fertility rates, culture, and tradition.
  • Term Papers and more term papers on Anthropology 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.termpapers-on-file.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.
.In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the natural sciences.^ Anthropology Drug interactions Protein homology modeling Protein Science Targeted Drug Delivery .
  • Academia.edu | People | People who have Anthropology as a research interest (2,837) 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.academia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It seems clear that by the mid-1960s, a new kind of anthropology was emerging that for some redefined civic responsibility.
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 ^ Anthropology courses that apply toward this track also emphasize natural science methodolo gies and theories.

 Some anthropologists, such as Lloyd Fallers and Clifford Geertz, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as Julian Steward and Leslie White, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by Marvin Harris.
Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as Max Gluckman and Peter Worsley experimented with Marxism and authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.
.Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including cognitive anthropology and componential analysis.^ Kiste observes, for example, “that anthropology had little influence on the development of health care and legal systems in the trust territory” (1999:449).

 ^ Linguistic Pragmatics and Cultural Analysis in Anthropology] Catalog Number: 4411 Steven C. Caton Half course (fall term).

 ^ The Anthropology of Development and Globalization] Catalog Number: 5053 Yuson Jung Half course (spring term).

 Authors such as David Schneider, Clifford Geertz, and Marshall Sahlins developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War;[57] Marxism became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline.[58] By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as Reinventing Anthropology worried about anthropology's relevance.
Since the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in Eric Wolf's Europe and the People Without History, have been central to the discipline. In the 80s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became popular topics, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by Marshall Sahlins (again), who drew on Lévi-Strauss and Fernand Braudel to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. Also influential in these issues were Nietzsche, Heidegger, the critical theory of the Frankfurt School, Derrida and Lacan.[59]
In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as George Marcus and James Clifford pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. .They were reflecting trends in research and discourse initiated by Feminists in the academy, although they excused themselves from commenting specifically on those pioneering critics.^ The mystification of the discipline has allowed anthropologists to keep in tact their autonomy – their freedom to frequently do as they wish – while marginalizing themselves from public discourses beyond the academy.

 ^ While public anthropologists need start with the problems as people themselves define them (or as the hiring organization defines them), they should NEVER stay with those framings.

 ^ Although anthropology and anthropologists are used as anti-structural grist for a host of intellectual mills, they are not themselves active participants in these discussions.

 [60] Nevertheless, key aspects of feminist theorizing and methods became de rigueur as part of the 'post-modern moment' in anthropology: Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology, cultural, gender and racial positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. .This was part of a more general trend of postmodernism that was popular contemporaneously.^ To anthropology, however, in its more general sense as the natural history of man, ethnology and ethnography may both be considered to belong, being related as parts to a whole.

 [61] Currently anthropologists pay attention to a wide variety of issues pertaining to the contemporary world, including globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, virtual communities, and the anthropology of industrialized societies.

Controversies about its history

Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.[62][63]
Some commentators have contended:
  • That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).[64]
  • That anthropologists typically have more power than the people they study and hence their knowledge-making is a form of theft in which the anthropologist gains something for him or herself at the expense of informants.
  • That ethnographic work was often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, Time and Its Other).

Military

Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.
.But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan).^ Public anthropology, I believe, became part of an effort to regain something many anthropologists felt they had lost – a sense of status and respect from the broader public.

 Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.
Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little (although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the stillborn Project Camelot).[65] Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).
.In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, anarchist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucauldian, identity-based, and more.^ As a branch of cultural anthropology, ethnography is devoted to the scientific description of one particular culture or group of people [ stress added]."
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 ^ The way to move toward a more cumulative knowledge base beyond the trends, fads, and fragmentation of recent decades, is to use a transparent, comparative standard for evaluating one set of results against another.

 ^ The theoretical and empirical bases of cultural and social anthropology have been under attack since the Marxist and New Left critiques of the 1960s to those coming more recently from poststructuralism, postmodernism and literate theory, and postcolonial and cultural studies.
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 [66]
Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA ) has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."
However, anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are again being used in warfare as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The Christian Science Monitor reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan, under the rubric of Human Terrain Team (HTT).[67]

Major discussions

Focus on other cultures

Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.[68]
Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".[59] It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.[69]
In France, the study of existing contemporary society has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing,[70] starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like Terrain ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). The same approach of focusing on "modern world" topics by Terrain, was also present in the British Manchester School of the 1950s.[citation needed]

See also

Anthropology portal
Main article: Outline of anthropology

References

  1. ^ Wolf, Eric (1994) Perilous Ideas: Race, Culture, People. Current Anthropology 35: 1-7. p.227
  2. ^ Flannery, T.F. (1994) The Future Eaters: An ecological history of the Australasian lands and people Chatswood: New South Wales ISBN 0802139434
  3. ^ a b http://www.aaanet.org/profdev/careers/Careers.cfm
  4. ^ (Kottak, C)
  5. ^ Layton, Robert (1998) An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  6. ^ Geertz, Behar, Clifford & James
  7. ^ Stanford University Bulletin 1998-1999 pg. 213 http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002257&mediaType=application/pdf
  8. ^ Stanford University Bulletin 2007-2008 pg. 269
  9. ^ Han F. Vermeulen, "The German Invention of Völkerkunde: Ethnological Discourse in Europe and Asia, 1740-1798." In: Sara Eigen and Mark Larrimore, eds. The German Invention of Race. 2006.
  10. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,913924,00.html
  11. ^ Salzmann, Zdeněk. .(1993) Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology.^ Cultural anthropology is the study of extant human cultures and societies around the world.
    • 14th ICAES 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.csuchico.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY Language, culture, cognition.

     ^ LANGUAGE IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR Introduction to interdisciplinary study of language; psychological, social, cultural aspects of language use.

     Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  12. ^ http://anthropology.net/2007/08/15/new-york-times-reviews-kenneallys-the-first-word/
  13. ^ Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy. A History of Anthropological Theory. Broadview Press. 2003. p. 11-12
  14. ^ George Stocking, "Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology." In George Stocking, The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992):342-361.
  15. ^ Leaf, Murray. Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology. Columbia University Press. 1979
  16. ^ http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2009/05.28/newdept.html
  17. ^ Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007
  18. ^ Robert Jurmaiine, Lynn Kiilgore, Wenda Treavathan, and Russell L. Ciochon. Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. 2007, chapters I, III and IV.; Wompack, Mari. Being Human. Prentice Hall. 2001, pp. 11-20.
  19. ^ Brown, Donald. Human Universals. McGraw Hill. 1991; Roughley, Neil. Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter Publishing. 2000
  20. ^ Levi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind. 1962; Womack, Mari. Being Human. 2001
  21. ^ Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches.
  22. ^ http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=209831&sectioncode=26
  23. ^ http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm; http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/282/5389/654?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&titleabstract=DNA+challenges+race&searchid=QID_NOT_SET&FIRSTINDEX=; Shanklin, Eugenia. 1994. Anthropology & Race; Faye V. Harrison. 1995. "The Persistent Power of 'Race' in the Cultural and Political Economy of Racism." Annual Review of Anthropology. 24:47-74. Allan Goodman. 1995. "The Problematics of "Race" in Contemporary Biological Anthropology." In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science.; Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 1945-. "Melanin, Afrocentricity...," 36(1993):33-58.; see Stanford's recent collection of overarching bibliographies on race and racism here: http://library.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/misc/race.html
  24. ^ http://www.aaanet.org/about/
  25. ^ http://www.aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf
  26. ^ Johanson, Donald and Kate Wong. Lucy's Legacy. Kindle Books. 2007; Netti, Bruno. The study of ethnomusicology. University of Illinois Press. 2005. Chapter One
  27. ^ Urbanowicz, Charles. In the Newsletter of the American Anthropological Association, reprinted online: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curbanowicz/Pub_Papers/4field.html
  28. ^ Foucault, Michel. "Introduction" to his 1961 translation of Kant's work, reprinted: http://www.generation-online.org/p/fpfoucault1.htm
  29. ^ Jacobs, Brian, and Kain, Patrick (eds.), Essays on Kant's Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 278pp., ISBN 0521790387.
  30. ^ Harris, Marvin. The Rise of Anthropological Theory. Alta Mira Press. 2000 (revised from 1968); Harris, Marvin. Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times. Altamira. 1998
  31. ^ Harris, 1968, op cit. pp. 8-52; Leaf 1970, op cit. pp. 1-13; Erickson and Murph, 2003, pp. 21-25
  32. ^ Resources for a History of Anthropology
  33. ^ Marco Polo's Asia
  34. ^ The Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology
  35. ^ a b Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
  36. ^ J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 59 (3), p. 389-403.
  37. ^ Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", Anthropological Quarterly 68 (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
  38. ^ West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era
  39. ^ Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press.
  40. ^ Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  41. ^ Wallerstein, Immanuel. (2003) "Anthropology, sociology, and other dubious disciplines." Current Anthropology 44:453-466.
  42. ^ On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in Culture and Human Nature: theoretical papers of Melford E. Spiro. Edited by B. Kilborne and L. L. Langness, pp. 32-58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  43. ^ Gellner, Ernest. (1998) Language and solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and the Habsburg dilemma. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  44. ^ Gellner, Ernest, ed. (1980) Soviet and Western anthropology. New York: Columbia University Press.
  45. ^ Stocking, George Jr. (1963) "Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention," American Anthropologist, 65:783-799, 1963
  46. ^ Tylor, E. B. (1865) Researches into the early history of mankind the development of civilization. London: John Murray.
  47. ^ Tylor, E. B. (1871) Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. 2 vols. London, John Murray.
  48. ^ Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) A diary in the strict sense of the term. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World [1967]
  49. ^ Jack Goody (1995) The Expansive Moment: The Rise of Social Anthropology in Britain and Africa, 1918-1970 review: [1]
  50. ^ Thomas William Heyck [2] The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5 (Dec., 1997), pp. 1486-1488 doi:10.2307/2171126
  51. ^ This would be influential on the ideas of Karl Marx, who dedicated Das Kapital to Morgan.
  52. ^ Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press.
  53. ^ Mauss, Marcel (1938) "A category of the human mind: the notion of person; the notion of self.," in M. Carrithers, S. Collins, and S. Lukes, eds. The Category of the Person: anthropology, philosophy, history. Pp. 1-25. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. Originally given as "Une categorie de l'Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne, Celle de 'Moi'," for the Huxley Memorial Lecture and appeared in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 68.
  54. ^ Bartholomew Dean “Critical Re-vision: Clastres' Chronicle and the optic of primitivism”, 2002 In Best of Anthropology Today, 1974-2000, ed. J. Benthall, with a preface by M. Sahlins. London: Routledge. [3]
  55. ^ Geneviève Zoïa, « L'anthropologie en Grèce », Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990) , [En ligne], mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005. URL: http://terrain.revues.org/document3641.html. Consulté le 15 juin 2007. (French)
  56. ^ Grottanelli, Vinigi Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments (and Comments and Reply). Other authors: Giorgio Ausenda, Bernardo Bernardi, Ugo Bianchi, Y. Michal Bodemann, Jack Goody, Allison Jablonko, David I. Kertzer, Vittorio Lanternari, Antonio Marazzi, Roy A. Miller, Jr., Laura Laurencich Minelli, David M. Moss, Leonard W. Moss, H. R. H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, Diana Pinto, Pietro Scotti, Tullio Tentori. Current Anthropology, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 593-614
  57. ^ Fanon, Frantz. (1963) The Wretched of the Earth, transl. Constance Farrington. New York, Grove Weidenfeld.
  58. ^ Nugent, Stephen Some reflections on anthropological structural Marxism The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Volume 13, Number 2, June 2007, pp. 419-431(13)
  59. ^ a b Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences American Anthropologist 100:" 716-731
  60. ^ Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  61. ^ Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26-50
  62. ^ Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
  63. ^ van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.
  64. ^ Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26-29.
  65. ^ Horowitz, Lewis ed.(1967) The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot.
  66. ^ D'Andrade, Roy (1995) "Moral Models in Anthropology." Current Anthropology 36: 399-408.
  67. ^ [4]
  68. ^ Ulf Hannerz (1980) "Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology", ISBN 0231083769, p. 1
  69. ^ Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521870690
  70. ^ *Marc Abélès, How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field Cultural Anthropology 1999 p. 407

Further reading

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

  • Barfield, Thomas (1997). The dictionary of anthropology. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
  • Levinson, David and Melvin Ember. eds. (1996) Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. (4 vols.) New York: Henry Holt.

Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists

  • Barley, Nigel (1983) The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut. .London: British Museum Publications.
  • Geertz, Clifford (1995) After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist.^ By 1995, Mississippi had become the number two or number three casino gambling state in America, depending upon one's standard of measure."
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     Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967) Tristes tropiques. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum.
  • Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) A diary in the strict sense of the term. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World.
  • Mead, Margaret (1972) Blackberry winter: my earlier years. New York: William Marrow.
  • Mead, Margaret, (1977) Letters from the field, 1925 - 1975. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Rabinow, Paul. (1977) Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco.

Histories

  • Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
  • Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology. .Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • D'Andrade, R. "The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950-1999." In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed.^ Smith, Valene [Editor], 1977, Hosts And Guests: The Anthropology Of Tourism (University of Pennsylvania Press).
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     ^ Smith, Valene [Editor], 1989, Hosts And Guests: The Anthropology Of Tourism (2md edition, University of Pennsylvania Press).
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     ^ His next book, Weaponizing Anthropology: American Anthropologists in the Second World War will be published by Duke University Press.
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     Anthropological Theory in North America. Westport: Berin & Garvey 1999. download
  • Darnell, Regna. (2001) Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  • Deeb, Benjamin. .(2007) Anthropology and Social Problems: A Manual of Change.
  • Harris, Marvin.^ Requirements for Socio-cultural Anthropology Minor The sociocultural anthropology minor introduces students to a range of problems in the study of social and cultural systems.

     ^ ANTHROPOLOGY OF DEVELOPING NATIONS Social, political, and economic change in the Third World.

     .(2001[1968]) The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture.^ DESCRIPTION of ANTH 296: Investigation of the history of the development of theory and method in anthropological thought and practice from the nineteenth century to the present.
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     ^ The course considers the relationship between the political and the economic through readings of classical texts in social theory, histories of capitalist transformation, and anthropological approaches to the economy as a culturally embedded phenomenon.

     ^ Jerry D. Moore (1997) Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists.
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     AltaMira Press. .Walnut Creek, CA.
  • Kehoe, Alice B. (1998) The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology.
  • Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences."^ Robert L. Welsch, 1998, An American Anthropologist in Melanesia: A.B. Lewis and the Joseph N. Field South Pacific Expedition 1909-1913 , pages 558-559.
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     ^ Herbert Lewis, 1998, The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences.
    • ANTHROPOLOGY 296 16 September 2009 22:022 UTC www.csuchico.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     .American Anthropologist, 100: 716-731.
  • Lewis, Herbert S. (2004) "Imagining Anthropology's History."^ Robert L. Welsch, 1998, An American Anthropologist in Melanesia: A.B. Lewis and the Joseph N. Field South Pacific Expedition 1909-1913 , pages 558-559.
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     ^ Herbert Lewis, 1998, The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences.
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     ^ His next book, Weaponizing Anthropology: American Anthropologists in the Second World War will be published by Duke University Press.
    • David H. Price: American Anthropologists Stand Up Against Torture 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.counterpunch.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     Reviews in Anthropology, v. .33.
  • Lewis, Herbert S. (2005) "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History.^ Herbert Lewis, 1998, The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences.
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     ^ Anthropology Anthropology of Science Anthropology of Technology Anthrozoology Biological Anthropology Biopolitics Genomics Collections Management Science Communication History History of Anthropology History of Biology Cold War History of Technology Cryopreservation Literature And Science Nanobiotechnology ( More ) ( Collapse ) .
    • Academia.edu | People | People who have Biological Anthropology as a research interest (207) 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC www.academia.edu [Source type: Academic]

     In R. Darnell & F.W. Gleach, eds. .Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol.^ Annual Review of Anthropology , Vol.
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     I.
  • Pels, Peter & Oscar Salemink, eds. .(2000) Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology.
  • Price, David.^ David Price is author of Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists (Duke, 2004).
    • David H. Price: American Anthropologists Stand Up Against Torture 15 September 2009 5:34 UTC www.counterpunch.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     (2004) Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists.
  • Stocking, George, Jr. (1968) Race, Culture and Evolution. New York: Free Press.
  • Trencher, Susan. (2000) Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960-1980.
  • Gisi, Lucas Marco. (2007) Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert, Berlin, New York: de Gruyter.

Textbooks and key theoretical works

.
  • Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography.^ Middle East Ethnography: Discourse, Politics, and Culture] Catalog Number: 8056 Enrollment: Limited to 18.

     .Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Geertz, Clifford (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures.^ University of California at Berkeley .
    • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ University of California, Berkeley .
    • Anthropological Linguistics (Consulting Editor: REGNA DARNELL) 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.udel.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ Isbell, William H., Professor , PhD, 1973, University of Illinois: Archaeology, space and place, architecture and built environment, cultural evolution, ceramic analysis, symbolic and structural interpretation; Andean South America, nuclear America.

     .New York: Basic Books.
  • Harris, Marvin (1997) Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology (7th Edition).^ William A. Haviland, 1999, Cultural Anthropology, 9th edition, page 7.
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     ^ As a branch of cultural anthropology, ethnography is devoted to the scientific description of one particular culture or group of people [ stress added]."
    • 14th ICAES 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.csuchico.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ Texas at Austin---This is a good introduction to how evolution works; introduction to DNA and genetics; how variation is generated; and discussion of Darwin and natural selection.
    • ANTHROPOLOGY WEB HAWG 19 January 2010 9:47 UTC rock.uwc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     Boston: Allyn & Bacon
  • Salzmann, Zdeněk. .(1993) Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology.^ Cultural anthropology is the study of extant human cultures and societies around the world.
    • 14th ICAES 15 September 2009 4:58 UTC www.csuchico.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY Language, culture, cognition.

     ^ LANGUAGE IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR Introduction to interdisciplinary study of language; psychological, social, cultural aspects of language use.

     Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  • Shweder, Richard A., and Robert A. LeVine, eds. (1984) Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

External links

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Anthropology at:

Quotes

Up to date as of January 14, 2010
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From Wikiquote

Anthropology is the study of human beings.

Sourced

  • Both social and biosocial factors are necessary to interpret crosscultural studies, with the general proviso that one's research interest determines which elements, in what combinations, are significant for the provision of understanding.
    • Gilbert Herdt, "Bisexuality and the Causes of Homosexuality: The Case of the Sambia"
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Look up anthropology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary

Simple English

An anthropologist is a person who studies human beings and how they behave. The study of human beings is called anthropology.

Some important anthropologists are:

  • Ruth Benedict
  • Franz Boas[[File:|thumb|Boas]]
  • Pere Bosch-Gimpera
  • Napoleon Chagnon
  • Mary Douglas
  • Marvin Harris
  • Zora Neale Hurston
  • Claude Lévi-Strauss
  • Alfred L. Kroeber
  • Ruth Landes
  • Bronislaw Malinowski
  • Marcel Mauss
  • Margaret Mead
  • Alfred Metraux
  • James Mooney
  • Lewis H Morgan
  • George Murdock
  • Erland Nordenskiold
  • Bronislav Pilsudski
  • Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
  • Frank G. Speck
  • Edward Burnett Tylor
  • Colin Turnbull
  • Clark Wissler
  • Eric R. Wolf
  • Huang Xianfan
Retrieved from "http://yak.rapint.com/wiki/Anthropologist"

Citable sentences

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Here are sentences from other pages on Anthropology, which are similar to those in the above article.








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