The Full Wiki

Barbiturate: Wikis
  
  

Encyclopedia

Updated live from Wikipedia, last check: May 30, 2012 01:58 UTC (39 seconds ago)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Barbituric acid, the basic structure of all barbiturates
.Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and, by virtue of this, they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia.^ Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia.
  • Barbiturates - Medications For Mental Illness And Mental Health Introduction 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.mentalhelp.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates are in the group of medicines known as central nervous system depressants (CNS).
  • Barbiturate Information - Effects of Barbiturates - Use of Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.homedrugtestingkit.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - blood, tube, pain, time, medication, pregnancy, risk, children, nausea, Definition, Purpose, Description, Recommended dosage, Precautions, Side effects, Interactions 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.surgeryencyclopedia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • WikiAnswers - What are barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC wiki.answers.com [Source type: General]
  • Barbiturates Information on Healthline 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.healthline.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ They act as depressants of the central nervous system.

 .They are also effective as anxiolytics, as hypnotics, and as anticonvulsants.^ They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics and as anticonvulsants.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Testing Panels - Willow Laboratories, Medical Center and Pharmacy Services - 280 Union Street, Lynn MA 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.willowlabs.com [Source type: Academic]
  • What makes barbiturates so addictive? - Yahoo! Answers 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC answers.yahoo.com [Source type: General]

 ^ In low doses barbiturates act as sedatives , i.e., they have a tranquilizing effect; increased doses have a hypnotic or sleep-inducing effect; still larger doses have anticonvulsant and anesthetic activity.
  • http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0806154.html 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.factmonster.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ This is why they come in the category of the therapeutic sedatives, anticonvulsants, hypnotics and anxiolytics i.e.
  • Barbiturates Testing | Barbiturates Home Drug Test Kits | Barbiturate Test Kits 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.testcountry.com [Source type: Academic]

 .They have addiction potential, both physical and psychological.^ Methaqualone is both physically and psychologically addictive.

 ^ They have addiction potential, both physical and psychological.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Testing Panels - Willow Laboratories, Medical Center and Pharmacy Services - 280 Union Street, Lynn MA 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.willowlabs.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ They can cause both physical and psychological dependence.
  • Fact Sheet - SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.well.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Welcome To East Side Pride - Chatham, Ontario 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.eastsidepride.ca [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates, Sedative-hypnotics and Downers - Symptoms and Effects 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.teensadvisor.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC snj.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Barbiturates have now largely been replaced by benzodiazepines in routine medical practice - for example, in the treatment of anxiety and insomnia – mainly because benzodiazepines are significantly less dangerous in overdose.^ Longer-acting barbiturates are used for management of epilepsy and have a role in management of sedative withdrawal; their use for treatment of anxiety and insomnia has largely been replaced by benzodiazepines.
  • Sedatives and hypnotics: Clinical use and abuse 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.uptodateonline.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The barbiturates have largely been replaced as sedatives by the benzodiazepines and other minor tranquilizers .
  • barbiturate (pharmacology) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ For these reasons, benzodiazapines have largely replaced barbiturates for use as medications.

 .However, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, as well as for epilepsy.^ Euthanasia by use of general anesthesia .
  • Euthanasia - Animal Research - The University of Iowa 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC research.uiowa.edu [Source type: Reference]
  • Untitled Document 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC research.uiowa.edu [Source type: Reference]

 ^ However, barbiturates are still used to treat some types of epilepsy.
  • Neuroscience for Kids - Barbiturate 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC faculty.washington.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Drugs and Their Effects ................. 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worsleyschool.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Courses on drugs: barbiturates, sedative,benzodiazepines 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.tavad.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It is the oldest epilepsy medicine still in use.
  • Introduction to phenobarbital: Basic | epilepsy.com 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.epilepsy.com [Source type: General]

 .Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid.^ Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid.
  • Seabhs - Medications - Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.seabhs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Testing Panels - Willow Laboratories, Medical Center and Pharmacy Services - 280 Union Street, Lynn MA 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.willowlabs.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The barbiturates are all derivatives of barbituric acid, which was...
  • Barbiturate: Free Encyclopedia Articles at Questia.com Online Library 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.questia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ History of Barbiturates Barbiturates are basically derivatives of barbituric acid.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

Contents

History

.Barbituric acid was first synthesized on December 6, 1864, by German researcher Adolf von Baeyer.^ Adolf von Baeyer — Infoplease.com .
  • http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0805725.html 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.infoplease.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ A Prussian chemist, Adolf von Baeyer, is credited with inventing and naming barbituric acid in 1863 or 1864.
  • How sleeping pill is made - material, manufacture, making, history, used, procedure, steps, product, machine, History, Raw Materials, Design, The Manufacturing Process of sleeping pill 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.madehow.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ A Prussian chemist, Adolf von Baeyer , is credited with inventing and naming barbituric acid in 1863 or 1864.
  • Article: Flying high with eagles: A close look at barbiturates. (Chemfusion). - Canadian Chemical News | HighBeam Research - FREE trial 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.highbeam.com [Source type: Academic]

 .This was done by condensing urea (an animal waste product) with diethyl malonate (an ester derived from the acid of apples).^ Diethyl Malonic Ester (diethyl diethyl malonate).
  • Synthesis of Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC designer-drugs.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Esters of Diethyl Δ 2 -cyclopentylmalonylacetic Acid .
  • Ultrashort acting hypnotic barbiturates - Patent 7041673 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.freepatentsonline.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid (malonyl urea), which is formed from malonic acid and urea.
  • barbiturate (pharmacology) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Reference]

 .There are several stories about how the substance got its name.^ There are several stories about how the substance got its name.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ There are a few legends about the reason why he named the new substance in such a strange way.
  • "Drugs- One-way Ticket to Paradise", drugs - sedative 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC library.thinkquest.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ It is not known how many there now are, but it is probably that every large city has at least one, some have several, and the movement is spreading rapidly to suburban communities.
  • Dealing with Drug Abuse | Archives | Ford Foundation 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fordfound.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The most likely story is that Von Baeyer and his colleagues went to celebrate their discovery in a tavern where the town's artillery garrison were also celebrating the feast of Saint Barbara — the patron saint of artillerists.^ The most likely story is that von Baeyer and his colleagues went to celebrate their discovery in a tavern where the town's artillery garrison were also celebrating the day of Saint Barbara — the patron saint of artillerists.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ This 1864 discovery was named "barbiturate" by Bayer, after the patron saint of artillery officers, Saint Barbara.

 ^ On the day of his discovery, Baeyer is said to have gone to a nearby tavern to celebrate.
  • How sleeping pill is made - material, manufacture, making, history, used, procedure, steps, product, machine, History, Raw Materials, Design, The Manufacturing Process of sleeping pill 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.madehow.com [Source type: Reference]

 .An artillery officer is said to have christened the new substance by amalgamating Barbara with urea.^ An artillery officer is said to have christened the new substance by amalgamating Barbara with urea .
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ It is said that on the Day of St. Barbara, 1864, that artillery officers were celebrating their patron saint in a tavern (a common practice in Europe, even today, to celebrate one’s "saint day").
  • Phenobarbitol Drug Development - 1. History 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC chemcases.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ That was his 1862 combination of urea and malonic acid, a new compound he dubbed "Barbara's urates" -- in honor of the patron saint, St. Barbara, of the day he made his discovery, December 4.
  • Barbiturate: Show Stoppers 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.doitnow.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [1] .No substance of medical value was discovered, however, until 1903 when two German chemists working at Bayer, Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering, discovered that barbital was very effective in putting dogs to sleep.^ In 1903, two German chemists Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering working at Bayer (a pharamaceutical company), discovered that barbital was very effective as a sedative when they conducted experiments on dog.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates were first is covered by German chemist Adolph Von Bayer.

 ^ The medical value of these substances was not realised, however, until 1903 when two other German chemists, Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering, discovered that one of these compounds, diethylbarbituric acid , was very effective in putting dogs to sleep.
  • Barbiturate 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.ch.ic.ac.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Barbital was then marketed by Bayer under the trade name Veronal.^ Barbital was then marketed by Bayer under the trade name Veronal.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It was marketed under the trade name Veronal.
  • Seabhs - Medications - Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.seabhs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Fischer and von Mering produced 5.5 diethylbarbituric acid, a hypnotic (a substance that produces a sleep-like state) and sedative known by the trade names Barbital, Veronal, and Dorminal.
  • Barbiturates - used, first, body, produced, Barbiturate Hazards, Developing Barbiturates, Barbiturate Use 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.discoveriesinmedicine.com [Source type: Reference]

 .It is said that Von Mering proposed this name because the most peaceful place he knew was the Italian city of Verona.^ It is said that Von Mering proposed this name because the most peaceful place he knew was the Italian city of Verona.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Von Mering allegedly christened barbital Veronal because the Italian city of Verona was the most peaceful city he knew.
  • Professor Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer ( 1835 - 1917 ) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.general-anaesthesia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ It is said that von Mering proposed that the new substance be called ' Veronal ', because the most peaceful place he knew on Earth was the Italian city of Verona.
  • Barbiturate 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.ch.ic.ac.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [1] .It was not until the 1950s that the behavioural disturbances and physical dependence potential of barbiturates became recognised.^ Barbiturates also have a high potential for dependency.

 ^ Barbiturates have a high potential for formation of physical dependence.

 ^ All sedatives, including barbiturates, can cause physical and psychological dependence even when they are taken at prescribed, therapeutic doses over a period of time.
  • Barbiturates - Depressant Barbiturates or Sedatives 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC alcoholism.about.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [2]
.While barbituric acid itself does not have any effect on the central nervous system, to date, chemists have derived over 2,500 compounds that do possess pharmacologically active qualities.^ Barbiturates are direct central nervous system depressants.

 ^ Benzodiazepines are also central nervous system depressants.
  • Sedatives 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.middlebury.edu [Source type: Academic]
  • Sedatives, Recreation and Wellness, Upper Iowa University, Fayette, Iowa 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.uiu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ While barbituric acid itself does not have any effect on the central nervous system, to date, chemists have derived over 2,500 compounds that do possess pharmacologically active qualities.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 .The broad class of barbiturates is broken down further and classified according to speed of onset and duration of action.^ Classification of Barbiturates The broad class of barbiturates is classified according to their speed of onset and duration of action.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The barbiturates have been classified into four groups according to duration of action (i.e.
  • Guidelines for Pentobarbital 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC vetmed.duhs.duke.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates were classified according to their duration of action—long, intermediate, short and ultra-short.
  • One hundred years of barbiturates and their saint -- Cozanitis 97 (12): 594 -- JRSM 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC jrsm.rsmjournals.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Ultrashort-acting barbiturates are commonly used for anesthesia because their extremely short duration of action allows for greater control.^ Barbiturates come in four durations of action: long acting, intermediate acting, short acting and ultra-short acting.
  • Drug Manual Chapter 1 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.lpac.ca [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Ultrashort-acting barbiturates are used in the medical field for anesthetic purposes.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The intermediate and short-acting barbiturates are the categories most commonly abused.
  • Rapid Detect Test Articles 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rapiddetect.com [Source type: Reference]

 .These properties allow doctors to rapidly put a patient "under" in emergency surgery situations.^ Their short span of action is extremely helpful for doctors to rapidly put a patient 'under' in emergency surgery situations.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These properties allow doctors to rapidly put a patient "under" in emergency surgery situations.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Your doctor may still allow you to take the drug under conditions of lowered dosage.
  • Order Fioricet cheapest online 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC order-fioricet.org [Source type: General]

 .Doctors can also bring a patient out of anesthesia just as quickly should complications arise during surgery.^ Relax patients before and during surgery.
  • http://library.thinkquest.org/C005038/barbie.htm 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC library.thinkquest.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Doctors can also bring a patient out of anesthesia just as quickly should complications arise during surgery.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Doctors often prescribe barbiturates to help people relax during times of great stress or to help patients suffering from anxiety disorders.
  • Barbiturates - used, first, body, produced, Barbiturate Hazards, Developing Barbiturates, Barbiturate Use 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.discoveriesinmedicine.com [Source type: Reference]

 .The middle two classes of barbiturates are often combined under the title "short/intermediate-acting."^ The intermediate and short-acting barbiturates are the categories most commonly abused.
  • Rapid Detect Test Articles 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rapiddetect.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Drug addicts tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The middle two classes of barbiturates are short or intermediate-acting.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 .These barbiturates are also employed for anesthetic purposes, and are also sometimes prescribed for anxiety or insomnia.^ These barbiturates are used for anesthetic purposes as well as to cure anxiety or insomnia .
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates were once commonly prescribed by doctors for anxiety, depression or insomnia.
  • Barbiturates - TheSite.org 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.thesite.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - TheSite.org 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.askthesite.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ These barbiturates are also employed for anesthetic purposes, and are also sometimes prescribed for anxiety or insomnia.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 .This is not a common practice anymore, however, owing to the dangers of long-term use of barbiturates; they have been replaced by the benzodiazepines for these purposes.^ Barbiturates are also used for therapeutic purposes.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates are not used for medical purposes as often as they once were.
  • Barbiturates - used, first, body, produced, Barbiturate Hazards, Developing Barbiturates, Barbiturate Use 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.discoveriesinmedicine.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ For these reasons, benzodiazapines have largely replaced barbiturates for use as medications.

 .The final class of barbiturates are known as long-acting barbiturates (the most notable one being phenobarbital, which has a half-life of roughly 92 hours).^ Examples of barbiturates that fall in the long acting class are Luminal (Phenobarbital) and Mebaral (mephobarbital).
  • Barbiturates Home Drug Test Kits 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.passadrugtest.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Phenobarbital is one such barbiturate.
  • DRUG DETOX PRODUCTS & DRUG QUICK TESTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.detox.3plus7.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • What to do if you suspect substance abuse | Treatment | Substance Abuse 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.troubledteensinfo.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Fix My Insides and Outsides — 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC vigorelle-reviews.com [Source type: General]

 ^ Remember phenobarbital as a long acting anticonvulsant .
  • http://www.med.howard.edu/pharmacology/handouts/Sedative%20Hypnotics.htm 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.med.howard.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .This class of barbiturates is used almost exclusively as anticonvulsants, although on rare occasions they are prescribed for daytime sedation.^ Do not use xanax barbiturates for conditions for which it was not prescribed.
  • xanax barbiturates - Cheapest Prices for Generic Drugs 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC eb23pol.esb.ucp.pt [Source type: General]

 ^ Its use is limited primarily to sedation or as an anticonvulsant.
  • Anesthesia, Analgesia and Sedation 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.ahc.umn.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ They can be used as anticonvulsants or in anesthesia.
  • MEDSort - Drug Category Information for Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC drugs.medsort.com [Source type: Reference]

 .Barbiturates in this class are not used for insomnia, because, owing to their extremely long half-life, patients would awake with a residual "hang-over" effect and feel groggy.^ The elimination half life of barbiturates that are long acting is 2 to5 days.
  • DrugTestStrips Articles» Blog Archive » Barbiturate Urinalysis 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.drugteststrips.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates of this class are never recommended for insomnia due to their extremely long half-life.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates were long used as anxiolytics and hypnotics.
  • WikiAnswers - What is a barbiturate 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC wiki.answers.com [Source type: General]
.Barbiturates can in most cases be used either as the free acid or as salts of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, lithium, etc.^ In any case, he named the compound barbituric acid.
  • How sleeping pill is made - material, manufacture, making, history, used, procedure, steps, product, machine, History, Raw Materials, Design, The Manufacturing Process of sleeping pill 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.madehow.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ A salt or ester of barbituric acid.
  • Barbiturate Definition | Definition of Barbiturate at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]
  • Barbiturates Definition | Definition of Barbiturates at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Barbiturates can in most cases be used as either the free acid or as salts of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, lithium, etc.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Codeine- and Dionine-based salts of barbituric acid have been developed.^ A salt or ester of barbituric acid.
  • Barbiturate Definition | Definition of Barbiturate at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]
  • Barbiturates Definition | Definition of Barbiturates at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Barbiturates The first clinically-used barbiturate was diethyl barbituric acid or barbital, developed by Fischer and van Mering in 1903.
  • Sleeping Pills, Insomnia, and Medical Practice: Report of a Study 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.nap.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Upon cooling, the sodium salt of diethyl barbituric acid separates, is filtered off, dissolved in water, and the free acid precipitated by the addition of hydrochloric acid.
  • Synthesis of Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC designer-drugs.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .In 1912, Bayer introduced another barbituric acid derivative, phenobarbital, under the trade name Luminal, as a sedative-hypnotic.^ Phenobarbital was later introduced in 1912.

 ^ In 1912, Bayer introduced another barbituric acid derivative, phenobarbital, under the trade name Luminal, as a sedative-hypnotic.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates have anaesthetic, sedative, and hypnotic properties.
  • Sodium thiopental - Drug information from Medic8.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.medic8.com [Source type: Academic]

 [3]

Therapeutic uses

.Barbiturates like pentobarbital and phenobarbital were long used as anxiolytics and hypnotics.^ Phenobarbital and pentobarbital are examples of barbiturates.
  • Barbiturate Definition | Definition of Barbiturate at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]
  • Barbiturates Definition | Definition of Barbiturates at Dictionary.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC dictionary.reference.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Barbiturates like pentobarbital and phenobarbital were long used as anxiolytics and hypnotics.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Therapeutic Uses of Barbiturates Barbiturates like pentobarbital and phenobarbital were earlier used as anxiolytics and hypnotics, but have now been replaced with benzodiazepines.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Today, benzodiazepines have largely supplanted them for these purposes, because benzodiazepines have less potential for lethal overdoses.^ An overdose of benzodiazepines has less potential for producing fatal effects.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It is because of this that overdoses can be lethal.
  • Sodium Thiopental - MOTM 2007 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.chm.bris.ac.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Large doses are potentially lethal.
  • http://library.thinkquest.org/C005038/barbie.htm 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC library.thinkquest.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [4][5][6]
.Barbiturates are classified as ultrashort-, short-, intermediate-, and long-acting, depending on how quickly they act and how long their effects last.^ Barbiturates come in four durations of action: long acting, intermediate acting, short acting and ultra-short acting.
  • Drug Manual Chapter 1 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.lpac.ca [Source type: Academic]

 ^ They are further categorized according to the duration of their effects ranging from ultra-short acting, short acting, intermediate acting, and long acting.

 ^ The intermediate and short-acting barbiturates are the categories most commonly abused.
  • Rapid Detect Test Articles 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rapiddetect.com [Source type: Reference]

 [7] .Barbiturates are still widely used in surgical anesthesia, especially to induce anesthesia, though their use during induction of anesthesia has largely been supplanted by propofol.^ Barbiturates are still widely used in surgical anesthesia, especially to induce anesthesia.
  • WikiAnswers - What is a barbiturate 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC wiki.answers.com [Source type: General]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates — Short-acting barbiturates are only used for anesthesia induction.
  • Sedatives and hypnotics: Clinical use and abuse 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.uptodateonline.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ However, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, as well as for epilepsy.
  • What makes barbiturates so addictive? - Yahoo! Answers 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC answers.yahoo.com [Source type: General]

 .Ultrashort barbiturates such as thiopental (Pentothal) produce unconsciousness within about a minute of intravenous (IV) injection.^ Thiopental (Pentothal) and ultrashort-acting barbiturates .

 ^ Ultrashort-acting barbiturates produce anesthesia within one minute of intravenous delivery into the system.
  • Uses Drugs of Abuse—Origins and Effects - Depressants 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.libraryindex.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Quick-acting thiopental (Pentothal) can produce unconsciousness within about a minute of intravenous injection, and phenobarbital is used as an anticonvulsant for people with seizure disorders.
  • Barbiturate Addiction Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.promises.com [Source type: Academic]

 .These drugs are used to prepare patients for surgery; other general anesthetics like sevoflurane or isoflurane are then used to keep the patient from waking up before the surgery is complete.^ They have been effective, alone or with other drugs, in these and other medical uses.
  • http://library.thinkquest.org/C005038/barbie.htm 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC library.thinkquest.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Relax patients before and during surgery.
  • http://library.thinkquest.org/C005038/barbie.htm 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC library.thinkquest.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ They helped anesthetize patients before surgery.
  • Barbiturate: Show Stoppers 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.doitnow.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 Because thiopental and other ultrashort-acting barbiturates are typically used in hospital settings, they are not very likely to be abused, noted the DEA.[8]
.Phenobarbital is used as an anticonvulsant for people suffering from seizure disorders such as febrile seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, status epilepticus, and eclampsia.^ USES: This medication is used for seizure disorders.
  • BARBITURATES - ORAL side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.medicinenet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The most effective treatment for seizure disorders is the use of anticonvulsant drugs.
  • http://www.foothillglobalaccess.org/faculty/spragge/2_2Anticonvulsants/2_2_types.html 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.foothillglobalaccess.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Phenobarbital is a useful anticonvulsant for people suffering from seizure disorders such as febrile seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, status epilepticus, and eclampsia.
  • What are Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.buzzle.com [Source type: Academic]

 [9]
.Long-acting barbiturates such as phenobarbital (Luminal) and mephobarbital (Mebaral) are prescribed for few reasons.^ Long-acting barbiturates include phenobarbital (Luminal) and mephobarbital (Mebaral), both of which are Schedule IV restricted drugs.
  • Barbiturates Home Drug Test Kits 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.passyourtest.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Phenobarbital is one such barbiturate.
  • DRUG DETOX PRODUCTS & DRUG QUICK TESTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.detox.3plus7.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Fix My Insides and Outsides — 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC vigorelle-reviews.com [Source type: General]

 ^ Examples of long-acting barbiturates are phenobarbital and barbital.
  • Barbiturates Information - Drug Test Success 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.drugtestsuccess.com [Source type: Reference]

 .When taken at bedtime, they help treat insomnia, and when taken during the day they have sedative effects that can aid in the treatment of tension and anxiety.^ They are also taken to alleviate insomnia and the effects of epilepsy.
  • CHAPTER 7: DEPRESSANTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fredonia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ When taken during the day, they have sedative effects that can aid in the treatment of tension and anxiety.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ When taken at bedtime, they help treat insomnia.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .However, prescription for the treatment of these conditions is now rare due to the risks of physical dependence and fatal overdose.^ Physical dependence rarely reported.
  • Bonkers Institute: Quaalude before breakfast 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.bonkersinstitute.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ However, fatal overdoses were all too often.
  • Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.seratis.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ However, these drugs are now rarely used.

 .These drugs are more often prescribed in the treatment of convulsive conditions like epilepsy.^ These drugs are commonly prescribed for individuals suffering from conditions such as epilepsy.
  • Barbiturates (Sleeping Drugs) >> Medical Questions, Weight Loss, Pregnancy, Drugs, Health Insurance 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.steadyhealth.com [Source type: General]
  • Barbiturates (Sleeping Drugs) >> Medical Questions, Weight Loss, Pregnancy, Drugs, Health Insurance 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.steadyhealth.com [Source type: General]

 ^ These same effects have been found helpful in the treatment of convulsive conditions like epilepsy.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturate abuse is still a major addiction problem in the population, although it has been partly replaced by addiction to other depressant drugs more commonly prescribed, such as benzodiazepines.
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • HowStuffWorks "Barbiturate Intoxication And Overdose - Medical Dictionary" 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC healthguide.howstuffworks.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose - Baylor Health 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC info.baylorhealth.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Health Library 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahospital.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate Intoxication and Overdose - Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment of Barbiturate Intoxication and Overdose - NY Times Health Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC health.nytimes.com [Source type: News]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose, Health Information, UW Health, University of Wisconsin Hospital, Madison 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC apps.uwhealth.org [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate Intoxication And Overdose - Health Information Library - Penn State Hershey 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.pennstatehershey.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • FloridaHealthFinder.gov | Health Encyclopedia | Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahealthfinder.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • DHMC | Health Encyclopedia | Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.dhmc.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose- medco.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.medcohealth.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC adam.about.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Greenville Hospital System 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.ghs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Health Information - Walgreens 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC shop.walgreens.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Phenobarbital has also been used in the treatment of delirium tremens during alcohol detoxification, although benzodiazepines have a more favorable safety profile and are more often used.^ Phenobarbital has also been used in the treatment of delirium tremens during alcohol detoxification, although benzodiazepines have a more favorable safety profile and are more often used.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Reviews the uses for benzodiazepines and barbiturat more .
  • Drugs of Abuse: Benzodiazepines 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: General]

 ^ Barbiturate abuse is still a major addiction problem in the population, although it has been partly replaced by addiction to other depressant drugs more commonly prescribed, such as benzodiazepines.
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose Medical Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.drugs.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Health Information - Walgreens 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.walgreens.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • HowStuffWorks "Barbiturate Intoxication And Overdose - Medical Dictionary" 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC healthguide.howstuffworks.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose - Baylor Health 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC info.baylorhealth.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Health Library 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahospital.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate Intoxication and Overdose - Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment of Barbiturate Intoxication and Overdose - NY Times Health Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC health.nytimes.com [Source type: News]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose, Health Information, UW Health, University of Wisconsin Hospital, Madison 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC apps.uwhealth.org [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate Intoxication And Overdose - Health Information Library - Penn State Hershey 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.pennstatehershey.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • FloridaHealthFinder.gov | Health Encyclopedia | Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahealthfinder.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • DHMC | Health Encyclopedia | Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.dhmc.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose- medco.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.medcohealth.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.sjhsyr.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Greenville Hospital System 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.ghs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Health Information - Walgreens 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC shop.walgreens.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [10] .Long-acting barbiturates take effect within one to two hours and last 12 hours or longer.^ Long-acting barbiturate— Onset of action: 60 minutes or longer.
  • Barbiturates Drug Information, Professional 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.drugs.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The effects of some of the long-acting drugs may last up to two days.
  • Barbiturate Abuse | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment | PDRHealth 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.pdrhealth.com [Source type: General]

 ^ Short Term Effects of Barbiturates: (last for 15 hours after ingestion) .
  • Depressants 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC thesho.com [Source type: Reference]

 [8]

Other uses related to their physiological properties

.Barbiturates in high doses are used for physician-assisted suicide (PAS), and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection.^ Barbiturates are also commonly used in suicide attempts.
  • Barbiturate Abuse 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.webmd.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In high doses, barbiturates are used for physician-assisted suicide and for euthanasia and capital punishment by lethal injection.
  • Barbiturate Addiction Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.promises.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Currently barbiturates are used both in their traditional roles and as lethal substances in the cases of assisted suicide , euthanasia and capital punishment by lethal injection , usually when administered alongside a muscle relaxant .
  • Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.seratis.net [Source type: Academic]

 [11][12] .Thiopental, an ultra-short acting barbiturate that is marketed under the name Sodium Pentothal, is sometimes used as a "truth serum". When dissolved in water, it can be swallowed or administered by intravenous injection.^ Short-acting: pentobarbital Ultra-short-acting: methohexital thiopental/thiopentone .
  • Eddy Elmer: Common exogenous psychoactive depressant drugs 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.eddyelmer.com [Source type: Reference]
  • Eddy M. Elmer: Common Psychoactive Agents---Depressants 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www3.telus.net [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Thiopental is still used in some places as a truth serum.
  • Sodium thiopental - Drug information from Medic8.com 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.medic8.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Pentothal is a short acting barbituric acid (barbiturate used in anesthesia) and is commonly called "truth serum" as it's used in narcoanalysis.

 .The drug does not itself force people to tell the truth, but is thought to decrease inhibitions, making subjects more likely to be caught off guard when questioned.^ It merely decreases their inhibitions, making them more likely to be "caught off guard" when questioned by authorities.
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ It also works as a truth serum , making the patient more pliable to questioning.
  • Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.seratis.net [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The drug does not itself force people to tell the truth, but is thought to decrease inhibitions, making subjects more likely to be caught off guard when questioned.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 [13]

Mechanism of action

.The principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be their affinity for the GABAA receptor (Acts on GABA : BDZ receptor Cl- channel complex).^ Hydroxybutyrate acts on GABA B receptors .
  • Drugs and the Nervous System 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC users.rcn.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be their affinity for the GABA A receptor (Acts on GABA : BDZ receptor cl - channel complex).
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS).^ GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS).
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Benzodiazepines are also central nervous system depressants.
  • Sedatives, Recreation and Wellness, Upper Iowa University, Fayette, Iowa 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.uiu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Ritalin (methylphenidate) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant.
  • Martinez- Drug & Alcohol Consulting | Drug Information and Facts {fran_area], California | AccuDiagnostics 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC accudiagnostics.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Barbiturates bind to the GABAA receptor at the alpha subunit, which are binding sites distinct from GABA itself and also distinct from the benzodiazepine binding site.^ Barbiturates interact differently than benzodiazepines at GABA receptors.

 ^ Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ GABA will bind specifically at the junction of the a and b subunits.
  • Skyscape Content: CE: Review of prescription therapy for insomnia 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC mediwire.skyscape.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.^ Barbiturates interact differently than benzodiazepines at GABA receptors.

 ^ Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .In addition to this GABA-ergic effect, barbiturates also block the AMPA receptor, a subtype of glutamate receptor.^ Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In addition to this GABA-ergic effect, barbiturates also block the AMPA receptor , a subtype of glutamate receptor .
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. Taken together, the findings that barbiturates potentiate inhibitory GABAA receptors and inhibit excitatory AMPA receptors can explain the CNS-depressant effects of these agents.^ Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS).
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .At higher concentration they inhibit the Ca2+-dependent release of neurotransmitters.^ At higher concentration they inhibit the Ca 2+ dependent release of neurotransmitters.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Opiates work by inhibiting the release of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine thus reducing pain, hunger and aggression.
  • CHAPTER 7: DEPRESSANTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fredonia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Thiopental causes a biphasic EEG response with activation at low concentrations followed by inhibition at higher concentrations.

 [9] .Barbiturates produce their pharmacological effects by increasing the duration of chloride ion channel opening at the GABAA receptor (pharmacodynamics: this increases the efficacy of GABA), whereas benzodiazepines increase the frequency of the chloride ion channel opening at the GABAA receptor (pharmacodynamics: this increases the potency of GABA).^ Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor.
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturate Structure and Chemistry 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.worldofmolecules.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Ion channels are among the possible targets of barbiturates.
  • Mechanisms of Barbiturate Inhibition of Acetylcholine Receptor Channels -- Dilger et al. 109 (3): 401 -- The Journal of General Physiology 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC jgp.rupress.org [Source type: Academic]

 .The direct gating or opening of the chloride ion channel is the reason for the increased toxicity of barbiturates compared to benzodiazepines in overdose.^ Ion channels are among the possible targets of barbiturates.
  • Mechanisms of Barbiturate Inhibition of Acetylcholine Receptor Channels -- Dilger et al. 109 (3): 401 -- The Journal of General Physiology 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC jgp.rupress.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Compared to the barbiturates, Benzodiazepines are very mild.
  • Controlled Substance ID - Pharmaceutical and Street Drugs 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.sccja.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The barbiturates enhance GABAergic activity by binding to the receptor and increasing the duration of chloride channel activation or opening (as compared with the benzodiazepines that increase the frequency or chloride channel opening).
  • Skyscape Content: CE: Review of prescription therapy for insomnia 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC mediwire.skyscape.com [Source type: Academic]

 [14][15]

Tolerance, dependence and overdose

.Older adults and pregnant women should consider the risks associated with barbiturate use.^ The use of barbiturates carries with it an associated risk of psychological and/or physical dependence.
  • Amytal Sodium (Amobarbital Sodium Injection) Drug Information: Uses, Side Effects, Drug Interactions and Warnings at RxList 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rxlist.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Nembutal Sodium Solution, USP (Ovation), Drug Reference Encyclopedia 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.theodora.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Older adults and pregnant women should consider the risks associated with barbiturate use.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ For barbiturates, the following should be considered: .
  • Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Healthopedia.com Drugs Information - Barbiturates : Before Using 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.healthopedia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .When a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates.^ When a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ An example would be a person who becomes nervous or excited after being administered a sleeping medication such as a barbiturate.
  • How Drugs work 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.indiana.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The person may become anxious as a result of not getting enough sleep and returns to taking barbiturates to solve the problem.
  • CHAPTER 7: DEPRESSANTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fredonia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at higher risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence and accidental overdose.^ Are barbiturates included in drug testing in sports?
  • ESPN.com - SPECIAL - Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC espn.go.com [Source type: News]

 ^ As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at higher risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence and accidental overdose.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Physical dependence or addiction can develop even when using the drug as prescribed, since the body builds up a tolerance and more of the drug is needed to maintain the desired effect.

 [16] .When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy, the drug passes through the mother's bloodstream to her fetus.^ When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy, the drug passes through the mother's bloodstream to her fetus.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ This drug is not recommended for use during pregnancy .
  • BARBITURATES - ORAL side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.medicinenet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates pass into the breast milk and may cause drowsiness, slow heartbeat, shortness of breath, or troubled breathing in babies of nursing mothers taking this medicine.
  • Health Library 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahospital.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate (Oral Route, Parenteral Route, Rectal Route): Before using - MayoClinic.com 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.mayoclinic.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing.^ After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates pass into the breast milk and may cause drowsiness, slow heartbeat, shortness of breath, or troubled breathing in babies of nursing mothers taking this medicine.
  • Health Library 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.floridahospital.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate (Oral Route, Parenteral Route, Rectal Route): Before using - MayoClinic.com 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.mayoclinic.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Breast-feeding Barbiturates pass into the breast milk and may cause drowsiness, slow heartbeat, shortness of breath, or troubled breathing in babies of nursing mothers taking this medicine.
  • Healthopedia.com Drugs Information - Barbiturates : Before Using 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.healthopedia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .In addition, nursing mothers who take barbiturates may transmit the drug to their babies through breast milk.^ Who Should Not Take xanax barbiturates?
  • xanax barbiturates - Cheapest Prices for Generic Drugs 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC eb23pol.esb.ucp.pt [Source type: General]

 ^ Barbiturate abuse may include taking the drug too long or too much.
  • Barbiturate Abuse | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment | PDRHealth 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.pdrhealth.com [Source type: General]

 ^ Women who are breast-feeding should not take barbiturates because these drugs enter the breast milk and may cause serious side effects in the nursing baby.
  • Barbiturates - dose, children, effects, adults, withdrawal, drug, people, used, effect, women, Definition, Purpose, Description, Recommended dosage, Precautions, Side effects 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.minddisorders.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [17]

Tolerance and dependence

.With regular use tolerance to the effects of barbiturates develops.^ Tolerance to barbiturates occurs with continued use.

 ^ With regular use tolerance to the effects of barbiturates develops.
  • Barbiturates | depressants | sedation | hypnotics | lethal overdoses | surgical anesthesia 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.tclondon.org.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ What are the mechanisms whereby tolerance develops to barbiturates?
  • PSY 335 Drugs and Behavior 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC campus.houghton.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .This in turn may lead to a need for increasing doses of the drug to get the original desired pharmacological or therapeutic effect.^ Hence, the user needs larger doses of the drug to produce the same desired effect.
  • Drug Manual Chapter 1 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.lpac.ca [Source type: Academic]

 ^ High doses may lead to convulsions.
  • Drug PCP - Phencyclidine Information, Use, Testing and Treatment 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC drug-pcp.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ To do so may increase the chance of side effects.
  • Belladonna Alkaloids and Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [18] .Barbiturate use can lead to both psychological and physical dependence and the drugs have a high abuse liability.^ Tolerance, psychological and physical dependence may occur with prolonged use.
  • Augusta Health - Secobarbital. (see koe BAR bi tal) (see koe BAR bi tal) U.S... 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.universityhealth.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These too lead to tolerance when abused and sometimes to psychological and physical dependence.
  • Depressant drugs - Drug Abuse - blood, body, effects, brain, high, chronic, white, people 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.faqs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Chronic use of barbiturates leads to tolerance and physical dependence.
  • Barbiturate Drug Tests - Home Drug Test 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.drugtestingworld.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Drug PCP - Phencyclidine Information, Use, Testing and Treatment 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC drug-pcp.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Opiate Test - opiates drug test - heroin testing 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC opiatetest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • TMS Labs 10-Drug Card/Cup Combo COC/AMP/MAMP/THC/OPI/PCP/BAR/BZO/MTD/MDMA Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.drugalcoholtestkits.com [Source type: Academic]
  • MDMA drug test - Ecstasy Drug Testing, rave, club drug 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC mdmadrugtest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • UA Testing - UA Drug Tests - Urine Drug Testing 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC uatesting.com [Source type: Academic]

 [19] .Psychological addiction to barbiturates can develop quickly.^ Psychological addiction can occur quickly.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Psychological addiction to barbiturates can develop quickly.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Depending on the dose, frequency, and duration of use, one can rapidly develop tolerance, physical dependence and psychological dependence on barbiturates.
  • Barbiturate Urine Drug Home Test 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.testicare.com [Source type: News]
  • Rapid Barbiturates Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.craigmedical.com [Source type: Academic]

 .The GABAA receptor, one of barbiturates' main sites of action, is thought to play a pivotal role in the development of tolerance to and dependence on barbiturates, as well as the euphoric "high" that results from their abuse.^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In addition, the GABA A receptor is modulated at unknown sites by barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.acnp.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Tolerance develops with prolonged abuse.
  • Depressant drugs - Drug Abuse - blood, body, effects, brain, high, chronic, white, people 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.faqs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [19] .The mechanism by which barbiturate tolerance develops is believed to be different than that of ethanol or benzodiazepines, even though these drugs have been shown to exhibit cross-tolerance with each other.^ Barbiturates interact differently than benzodiazepines at GABA receptors.

 ^ Tolerance to narcotics develops faster than almost any other drug.
  • CADE - The Center for Alcohol and other Drug Education 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC gwired.gwu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ These drugs include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and alcohol.
  • Depressants Addiction | Effects of Depressants | Depressants Facts 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.drugfree.org [Source type: Reference]

 [20] .The management of a physical dependence on barbiturates is stabilisation on the long-acting barbiturate phenobarbitol followed by a gradual titration down of dose.^ What are the risks of physical and psychological dependence on barbiturates?
  • PSY 335 Drugs and Behavior 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC campus.houghton.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Depending on the dose, frequency, and duration of use, one can rapidly develop tolerance, physical dependence and psychological dependence on barbiturates.
  • Barbiturate Urine Drug Home Test 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.testicare.com [Source type: News]
  • Rapid Barbiturates Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.craigmedical.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ "The duration of the effects of barbiturates can range last from two to three hours for the short-acting forms to as long as six to 10 hours for the longer-acting drugs."
  • ESPN.com - SPECIAL - Barbiturates 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC espn.go.com [Source type: News]

 .The slowly eliminated phenobarbitol lessens the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and reduces the chances of serious barbiturate withdrawal effects such as seizures.^ Barbiturate withdrawal and seizures .
  • Barbiturate withdrawal and seizures - Addiction: Substance Abuse - MedHelp 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.medhelp.org [Source type: General]

 ^ Effects of barbiturate withdrawal on behavior.
  • NADD - An association for persons with developmental disabilities and mental health needs 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.thenadd.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ With a greater level of dependence, tremors and weakness are also present, and in its most severe form, the withdrawal syndrome can cause seizures and delirium.
  • Drugs of Abuse Publication, Chapter 6 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.justice.gov [Source type: Reference]
  • Binghamton University - Smart Choices: Used Abused: Depressants 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www2.binghamton.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [21] .Antipsychotics are not recommended for barbiturate withdrawal (or other CNS depressant withdrawal states) especially clozapine, olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines eg chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects; if used extreme caution is required.^ There is an additive effect of barbiturates with other CNS depressants.

 ^ Barbiturates and other depressants .
  • CADE - The Center for Alcohol and other Drug Education 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC gwired.gwu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The concomitant use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may have an additive effect.
  • RxMed: Pharmaceutical Information - BARBITURATES 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.rxmed.com [Source type: Academic]

 [22]

Overdose

.An overdose results when a person takes a larger-than-prescribed dose of a drug.^ This can lead to an overdose, which results when a person takes a larger-than-prescribed dose of a drug.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ An overdose results when a person takes a larger-than-prescribed dose of a drug.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Since their bodies tend to metabolize these drugs more slowly, they develop higher blood levels than are normally associated with larger doses.
  • AADAC - Beyond the ABCs - Tranquillizers and Sleeping Pills 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.aadac.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Symptoms of an overdose typically include sluggishness, incoordination, difficulty in thinking, slowness of speech, faulty judgment, drowsiness or coma, shallow breathing, staggering, and in severe cases coma and death.^ Symptoms of an overdose include incoordination, slurred speech, difficulty in thinking, coma, respiratory and cardiovascular depression with hypotension and shock leading to renal failure and death.

 ^ Sluggishness Incoordination Difficulty in thinking Slowness of speech Faulty judgment Drowsiness or coma Shallow breathing Staggering Exams and Tests .
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose Medical Information 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.drugs.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Severe overdose may progress to shock, coma and death.
  • RxMed: Pharmaceutical Information - BARBITURATES 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.rxmed.com [Source type: Academic]

 [23] .The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another.^ The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The use of marijuana varies greatly with the individual.
  • William Burroughs Letters Page 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.lucaspickford.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The amount of a fatal dosage of barbiturate varies from one individual to another.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Even in inpatient settings, however, the development of tolerance is still a problem, as dangerous and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms can result when the drug is stopped after dependence has developed.^ Physical dependence (development of physical withdrawal symptoms when a person stops taking the depressant) .
  • Patient Education Center: health information, medical news, physicians 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.patienteducationcenter.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Changes to defintions drug dependence and withdrawals.
  • Authoritive Opinions W.H.O and others 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.bcnc.org.uk [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Dependence also can develop, meaning the person will have withdrawal symptoms if he or she suddenly stops taking the drugs.
  • Patient Education Center: health information, medical news, physicians 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.patienteducationcenter.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [18] .Barbiturates in overdose with other CNS depressants for example, alcohol, opiates or benzodiazepines is even more dangerous due to additive CNS and respiratory depressant effects.^ Never mix barbiturates with heroin (or other opiates), valium, benzodiazepines, or alcohol of any kind.
  • HowStuffWorks "Barbiturate Intoxication And Overdose - Medical Dictionary" 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC healthguide.howstuffworks.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose | Caremark Health Resources 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC health-healthresources.caremark.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate intoxication and overdose : Wilmington, Delaware DE 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.christianacare.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ CNS depressants: Sedative effects and/or respiratory depression with barbiturates may be additive with other CNS depressants; monitor for increased effect; includes ethanol, sedatives, antidepressants, narcotic analgesics, and benzodiazepines .
  • Pentobarbital - Erewhon Natural Foods 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.erewhonmarket.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Augusta Health - Amobarbital. (am oh BAR bi tal) (am oh BAR bi tal) U.S. Brand... 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.universityhealth.org [Source type: Academic]
  • Augusta Health - Secobarbital. (see koe BAR bi tal) (see koe BAR bi tal) U.S... 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.universityhealth.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Additive or, more often, synergistic interaction with other depressants .
  • CNS Depressants 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.uni.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .In the case of benzodiazepines not only do they have additive effects, barbiturates also increase the binding affinity of the benzodiazepine binding site thus leading to an exaggerated effect of benzodiazepines.^ Benzodiazepine binding site on GABA receptor .
  • CNS Depressants 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.uni.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In the case of benzodiazepines not only do they have additive effects, barbiturates also increase the binding affinity of the benzodiazepine binding site thus leading to an exagerated effect of benzodiazepines.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates Wikipedia Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia.
  • Seabhs - Medications - Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.seabhs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [24]

Recreational use

.Like ethanol, barbiturates are intoxicating and produce similar effects during intoxication.^ The withdrawal state from barbiturates is similar to that from ethanol.
  • Arch Neurol -- Barbiturate Withdrawal Following Internet Purchase of Fioricet, July 2004, Romero et al. 61 (7): 1111 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC archneur.ama-assn.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Like alcohol, barbiturates are intoxicating.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia.

 .The symptoms of barbiturate intoxication include respiratory depression, lowered blood pressure, fatigue, fever, unusual excitement, irritability, dizziness, poor concentration, sedation, confusion, impaired coordination, impaired judgment, addiction, and respiratory arrest which may lead to death.^ Confusion; mental depression; unusual excitement.
  • Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ At higher doses, you will experience impaired judgment, poor coordination, slurred speech, lowered inhibitions, slowed pulse and breathing, lowered blood pressure, poor concentration/fatigue, confusion, and impaired memory and judgment.

 ^ Behavioral symptoms include depressed mood, anxiety and irritability.
  • CHAPTER 7: DEPRESSANTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fredonia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [25]
.Recreational users report that a barbiturate high gives them feelings of relaxed contentment and euphoria.^ Recreational users report that a barbiturate high makes them feel "relaxed, sociable, and good-humored", according to an independent article.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Recreational users report that a barbiturate high gives them feelings of relaxed contentment and euphoria.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturates in high doses are used for physician-assisted suicide (PAS), and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The main risk of acute barbiturate abuse is respiratory depression.^ Barbiturates are respiratory depressants.
  • Nembutal (Pentobarbital) Drug Information: Uses, Side Effects, Drug Interactions and Warnings at RxList 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rxlist.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Nembutal Sodium Solution, USP (Ovation), Drug Reference Encyclopedia 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.theodora.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The main risk of acute barbiturate abuse is respiratory depression.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Causes, incidence, and risk factors Barbiturate abuse is still a major addiction problem in the population, although it has been partly replaced by addiction to other depressant drugs more commonly prescribed, such as benzodiazepines.

 .Physical and psychological dependence may also develop with repeated use.^ Tolerance, psychological and physical dependence may occur with prolonged use.
  • Pentobarbital - Erewhon Natural Foods 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.erewhonmarket.com [Source type: Academic]
  • PENTobarbital: Drug Information Provided by Lexi-Comp: Merck Manual Professional 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Augusta Health - Secobarbital. (see koe BAR bi tal) (see koe BAR bi tal) U.S... 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.universityhealth.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Psychological dependence, physical dependence and tolerance all develop to the use of these drugs.
  • CHAPTER 7: DEPRESSANTS 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.fredonia.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Excessive use can result in psychological and physical dependence.
  • Drugs of Abuse Publication, Chapter 6 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.justice.gov [Source type: Reference]

 [26] .Other effects of barbiturate intoxication include drowsiness, lateral and vertical nystagmus, slurred speech and ataxia, decreased anxiety, a loss of inhibitions.^ Other common effects include: .
  • Drug Manual Chapter 1 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.lpac.ca [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Other effects of barbiturate intoxication include drowsiness, lateral and vertical nystagmus, slurred speech and ataxia, decreased anxiety, a loss of inhibitions.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Symptoms of acute intoxication with barbiturates include unsteady gait , slurred speech, and sustained nystagmus .
  • Nembutal (Pentobarbital) Drug Information: Uses, Side Effects, Drug Interactions and Warnings at RxList 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rxlist.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Barbiturates are also used to alleviate the adverse or withdrawal effects of illicit drug misuse.^ What drugs are used to treat the adverse effects of local anesthetics?

 ^ The effects of using this drug can be unpredictable and variable.
  • Common Drugs of Abuse 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.bigdetox.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates are also misused to alleviate the adverse or withdrawal effects of illicit drug misuse.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 [27][28]
.Drug users tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates.^ The intermediate and short-acting barbiturates are the categories most commonly abused.
  • Rapid Detect Test Articles 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.rapiddetect.com [Source type: Reference]

 ^ Drug users tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Abusers tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [29] .The most commonly abused are amobarbital (Amytal), pentobarbital (Nembutal), and secobarbital (Seconal).^ Amytal Black Beauties Blue Angels Butisol Florinal Nembutal Phenobarbital Reds Seconal Tuinal .
  • PRL: Physicians Reference Laboratory 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.prlnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The drugs of particular concern to policymakers were the commonly prescribed sleeping pills (hypnotics) containing secobarbital, pentobarbital, and amobarbital.
  • Sleeping Pills, Insomnia, and Medical Practice: Report of a Study 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.nap.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The barbi- turates often used as hypnotics, which include secobarbital (Seconal(R)), amobarbital (Amytal(R)), and pent obarbital (Nembutal(R)), are considered short-to-intermediate acting.
  • Sleeping Pills, Insomnia, and Medical Practice: Report of a Study 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.nap.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .A combination of amobarbital and secobarbital (called Tuinal) is also highly abused.^ For secobarbital and amobarbital combination .
  • Barbiturates (Systemic) 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC allnutritionals.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ A combination of amobarbital and secobarbital (called Tuinal) is also highly abused.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates still marketed include secobarbital (Seconal® or reds, red devils), pentobarbital (Nembutal® or yellow jackets), amobarbital (Amytal® or blue heavens), a combination of amobarbital and secobarbital (Tuinal or Christmas trees, rainbows), and phenobarbital.
  • AADAC - Beyond the ABCs - Tranquillizers and Sleeping Pills 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.aadac.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates are usually prescribed as sedatives and sleeping pills.^ Short-acting barbiturate with sedative, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant properties.
  • Pentobarbital - Erewhon Natural Foods 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.erewhonmarket.com [Source type: Academic]
  • PENTobarbital: Drug Information Provided by Lexi-Comp: Merck Manual Professional 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Barbiturate sleeping pills are used similarly.
  • AADAC - Beyond the ABCs - Tranquillizers and Sleeping Pills 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.aadac.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Drug users tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 .These pills begin acting fifteen to forty minutes after they are swallowed, and their effects last from five to six hours.^ The pleasurable effects do not last more than five or ten minutes.
  • William Burroughs Letters Page 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.lucaspickford.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ These pills begin acting fifteen to forty minutes after they are swallowed, and their effects last from five to six hours.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Effects of Seconal last for three to six hours.
  • Barbiturates Drug Inforamtion 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.homehealth-uk.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Veterinarians use pentobarbital to anesthetise animals before surgery; in large doses, it can be used to euthanise animals.^ Veterinarians use pentobarbital to anesthetise animals before surgery; in large doses, it can be used to euthanise animals.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Veterinarians use pentobarbital for anesthesia and euthanasia.
  • Drugs of Abuse Publication, Chapter 6 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.justice.gov [Source type: Reference]

 ^ These drugs are used to prepare patients for surgery; other general anesthetics like nitrous oxide are then used to keep the patient from waking up before the surgery is complete.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [8]
.Slang terms for barbiturates include barbs, bluebirds, blues, dolls, downers, goofballs, tooties and yellow jackets.^ Slang terms for barbiturates include; barbs, bluebirds, blues, downers, goofballs, tooties and yellow jackets.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These are commonly known as "downers" or Barbs, Blue Devils, Red Devils, Yellows, Yellow Jacket, Tuinals, Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal.
  • Passages Guide to Identifying & Recognizing Illegal Drugs - Passages Malibu Drug Rehab & Alcohol Rehab Addiction Treatment Cure Center 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.passagesmalibu.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Barbiturates are known as downers, barbs, red devils, goof balls, yellow jackets, block busters, pinks reds and blues, Christmas trees.
  • Drugs of Abuse FAQ, Marijuana drug testing facts 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.xpressdrugtest.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [30]

Legal status

.In the 1950s and 1960s, increasing reports began to be published about barbiturate overdoses and dependence problems, which eventually led to the scheduling of barbiturates as controlled drugs.^ Reports increase about side effects and dependence related to barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates - Medications For Mental Illness And Mental Health Introduction 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.mentalhelp.net [Source type: Academic]
  • Seabhs - Medications - Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.seabhs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In the 1950s and 1960s, reports began to be published about side effects and dependence related to barbiturates.
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Psychological dependence - History of drug control .
  • drug use :: Barbiturates, stimulants, and tranquillizers -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Academic]
In 1970, several barbiturates were designated in the United States as controlled substances with the passage of the American Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Pentobarbital, secobarbital and amobarbital were designated schedule II drugs, butabarbital schedule III, and barbital and phenobarbital schedule IV.
.In 1971, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances was signed in Vienna.^ Convention on Psychotropic Substances is signed in Vienna.
  • Barbiturates - Medications For Mental Illness And Mental Health Introduction 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.mentalhelp.net [Source type: Academic]
  • Seabhs - Medications - Barbiturates 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.seabhs.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In 1971 the Convention on Psychotropic Substances was signed in Vienna .
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In 1971 the Convention on Psychotropic Substances was signed in Vienna.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Designed to regulate amphetamines, barbiturates, and other synthetics, the treaty today regulates secobarbital, amobarbital, butalbital, cyclobarbital, and pentobarbital as schedule III, and allobarbital, methylphenobarbital, phenobarbital, and vinylbital as schedule IV scheduled substances.^ An overdose of pentobarbital or other barbiturate given IP of IV is preferable.
  • UWP Euthanasia Guidelines 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.uwplatt.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Designed to regulate amphetamines, barbiturates, and other synthetics, the treaty today regulates secobarbital, amobarbital, butalbital, cyclobarbital, and pentobarbital as schedule III, and allobarbital, methylphenobarbital, phenobarbital, and vinylbital as schedule IV scheduled substances.
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Pentobarbital, secobarbital and amobarbital were designated schedule II drugs, butabarbital schedule III, and barbital and phenobarbital schedule IV. .
  • Barbiturates Test - Barbiturates Drug Test 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC barbituratestest.com [Source type: Academic]

Other uses in chemistry

.In 1988, the synthesis and binding studies of an artificial receptor binding barbiturates by 6 complementary hydrogen bonds was published.^ Barbiturates bind to the GABA A receptor at the alpha?
  • Barbiturates - Psychology Wiki 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC psychology.wikia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Barbiturate: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The mechanism by which barbiturates interfere with oral contraceptive efficacy involves induction of contraceptive steroid hepatic metabolism as well as stimulation of sex hormone binding globulin synthesis.
  • http://www.hhsc.state.tx.us/HCF/vdp/Criteria/sedative.html 10 February 2010 11:56 UTC www.hhsc.state.tx.us [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Decreased brain GABA(A) benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder: preliminary results from a quantitative PET study.
  • Sedatives and hypnotics: Clinical use and abuse 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.uptodateonline.com [Source type: Academic]

 [31] .Since this first article, different kind of receptors were designed, as well as different barbiturates and cyanurates, not for their efficiencies as drugs but for applications in supramolecular chemistry, in the conception of materials and molecular devices.^ Barbiturates act by enhancing the action of GABA through binding to a site on the GABA A receptor/chloride channel, a property they share with benzodiazepines ; however, the binding sites of the two drug types differ and as a result, the action of barbiturates is less specific.

 ^ The first barbiturate drug, barbital , was synthesized in 1902 by German chemists Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering at Bayer.
  • Phenobarbital: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557 entries. 9 February 2010 12:59 UTC www.chemie.de [Source type: Academic]

 ^ "Discussing Oklahoma’s chief medical examiner, Jay Chapman, designing the 3 drug lethal injection protocol: “the first drug Chapman included, an ultra-short acting barbiturate, is an anesthetic (thiopental) that can act quickly to cause a low level of unconsciousness.

Examples

generic structure of a barbiturate, including numbering scheme
Barbiturates
Short Name R1 R2 IUPAC Name
Allobarbital CH2CHCH2 CH2CHCH2 5,5-diallylbarbiturate
Amobarbital CH2CH3 CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 5-ethyl-5-isopentyl-barbiturate
Aprobarbital CH2CHCH2 CH(CH3)2 5-allyl-5-isopropyl-barbiturate
Alphenal CH2CHCH2 C6H5 5-allyl-5-phenyl-barbiturate
Barbital CH2CH3 CH2CH3 5,5-diethylbarbiturate
Brallobarbital CH2CHCH2 CH2CBrCH2 5-allyl-5-(2-bromo-allyl)-barbiturate
Phenobarbital CH2CH3 C6H5 5-ethyl-5-phenylbarbiturate

See also

Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal

References

  1. ^ a b "Barbiturates". http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/drugs/html/barbiturate_text.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-31. 
  2. ^ Galanter, Marc; Kleber, Herbert D. (1 July 2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (4th ed.). United States of America: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. p. 217. ISBN 978-1585622764. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6wdJgejlQzYC. 
  3. ^ Sneader, Walter (2005-06-23). Drug Discovery. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 369. ISBN 0-471-89979-8. 
  4. ^ Whitlock FA (June 14, 1975). "Suicide in Brisbane, 1956 to 1973: the drug-death epidemic". Med J Aust 1 (24): 737–43. PMID 239307. 
  5. ^ Johns MW (1975). "Sleep and hypnotic drugs". Drugs 9 (6): 448–78. doi:10.2165/00003495-197509060-00004. PMID 238826. 
  6. ^ Jufe GS (Jul-August 2007). "[New hypnotics: perspectives from sleep physiology]". Vertex 18 (74): 294–9. PMID 18265473. 
  7. ^ "Barbiturates: How Is It Taken?". azdrugs.org. 2005–2007. http://azdrugs.org/barbiturates/how-taken. Retrieved 2007-10-31. 
  8. ^ a b c DEA Brief on Barbiturates
  9. ^ a b Brunton, Laurence L.; Lazo, John S.; Parker, Keith L.; Goodman, Louis Sanford; Gilman, Alfred Goodman (2005). Goodman & Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071422803. 
  10. ^ Kosten TR, O'Connor PG. "Management of drug and alcohol withdrawal." New England Journal of Medicine. 1 May 2003;348(18):1786-95. PMID 12724485
  11. ^ "Administration and Compounding Of Euthanasic Agents". http://www.wweek.com/html/euthanasics.html. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  12. ^ Daniel Engber. "Why do lethal injections have three drugs?". Slate Magazine. http://www.slate.com/id/2141000/. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  13. ^ "Neuroscience for Kids - Barbiturates". http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/barb.html. Retrieved 2008-06-02. 
  14. ^ Neil Harrison; Wallace B Mendelson and Harriet de Wit (2000). "Barbiturates". Neuropsychopharmacology. http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000173/CH169.html. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  15. ^ Society for Neurochemistry, American; George J. Siegel M.D., Bernard W. Agranoff M.D., Stephen K. Fisher Ph.D., R. Wayne Albers Ph.D., Michael D. Uhler Ph.D. (1999) [1998]. "Part 2 Chapter 16". Basic Neurochemistry - Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects (Sixth ed.). Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0-397-51820-X. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=bnchm.section.1181. Retrieved July 2008. 
  16. ^ WebMD. "Toxicity, Barbiturate". eMedicine. http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic207.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  17. ^ Nau H; Kuhnz W, Egger HJ, Rating D, Helge H (Nov-December 1982). "Anticonvulsants during pregnancy and lactation. Transplacental, maternal and neonatal pharmacokinetics". Clin Pharmacokinet 7 (6): 508–43. doi:10.2165/00003088-198207060-00003. PMID 6819105. 
  18. ^ a b Zapantis A, Leung S (September 2005). "Tolerance and withdrawal issues with sedation". Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 17 (3): 211–23. doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2005.04.011. PMID 16115529. 
  19. ^ a b Takehiko Ito, Toshihito Suzuki, Susan E. Wellman and Ing Kang Ho (June 1996). "Pharmacology of barbiturate tolerance/dependence: GABAA receptors and molecular aspects". Life Sciences 59 (3): 169–95. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(96)00199-3. 
  20. ^ Allan AM, Zhang X, Baier LD (August 1992). "Barbiturate tolerance: effects on GABA-operated chloride channel function". Brain Res. 588 (2): 255–60. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91583-Z. PMID 1382810. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0006-8993(92)91583-Z. 
  21. ^ Tyrer, Peter; Silk, Kenneth R., eds (24 January 2008). Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 406. ISBN 978-0521842280. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLPXELjTgdEC. 
  22. ^ Ebadi, Manuchair (23 October 2007). "Alphabetical presentation of drugs". Desk Reference for Clinical Pharmacology (2nd ed.). USA: CRC Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-1420047431. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ihxyHbnj3qYC. 
  23. ^ "Barbiturate intoxication and overdose". MedLine Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000951.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  24. ^ Miller LG, Deutsch SI, Greenblatt DJ, Paul SM, Shader RI (1988). "Acute barbiturate administration increases benzodiazepine receptor binding in vivo". Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 96 (3): 385–90. doi:10.1007/BF00216067. PMID 2906155. 
  25. ^ National Institute on Drug Abuse. "Commonly Abused Drugs". pp. 1. http://www.drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  26. ^ Schlatter J; Sitbon N, Saulnier JL (February 17, 2001). "[Drugs and drug abusers]". Presse Med 30 (6): 282–7. PMID 11252979. 
  27. ^ Emedicine Health. "Barbiturate Abuse". pp. 1. http://www.emedicinehealth.com/barbiturate_abuse/article_em.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008. 
  28. ^ Faulkner TP; Hayden JH, Mehta CM, Olson DA, Comstock EG (1979). "Dose-response studies on tolerance to multiple doses of secobarbital and methaqualone in a polydrug abuse population". Clin Toxicol 15 (1): 23–37. PMID 498734. 
  29. ^ Coupey SM. "Barbiturates." Pediatrics in Review. 1997 Aug;18(8):260-4. PMID 9255991
  30. ^ Hamid H.; El-Mallakh RS, Vandeveir K (March 2005). "Substance Abuse: Medical and Slang Terminology". South Med J (Medscape) 98 (3): 350–362. doi:10.1097/01.SMJ.0000153639.23135.6A. PMID 15813163. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/501975_4. 
  31. ^ Chang, S.-K.; Hamilton, A. D. Journal of the American Chemical Society 1988, 110, 1318-1319.

External links

Barbiturates (N01AF, N03AA, N05CA)
Allobarbital • Alphenal • Amobarbital • Aprobarbital • Barbexaclone • Barbital • Benzylbutylbarbiturate • Brallobarbital • Brophebarbital • Bucolome • Butabarbital • Butalbital • Butobarbital • Butallylonal • Crotylbarbital • Cyclobarbital • Cyclopal • Enallylpropymal • Eterobarb • Ethallobarbital • Febarbamate • Heptabarbital • Hexethal • Hexobarbital • Mephobarbital • Metharbital • Methohexital • Methylphenobarbital • Narcobarbital • Nealbarbital • Pentobarbital • Phenobarbital • Phetharbital • Prazitone • Probarbital • Propallylonal • Proxibarbal • Proxibarbital • Reposal • Secbutabarbital • Secobarbital • Sigmodal • Spirobarbital • Talbutal • Thialbarbital • Thiamylal • Thiobarbital • Thiobutabarbital • Thiopental • Valofane • Vinbarbital • Vinylbital

Citable sentences

Up to date as of December 30, 2010

Here are sentences from other pages on Barbiturate, which are similar to those in the above article.








Got something to say? Make a comment.
Your name
Your email address
Message
Please enter the solution to case below
5-2=