From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See Hypertension for more information about high blood pressure.

A sphygmomanometer, a device used for measuring arterial pressure.

Measurement

A medical student checking blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.

Noninvasive measurement

Palpation method

Auscultatory method

Auscultatory method aneroid sphygmomanometer with stethoscope

Mercury manometer

Oscillometric method

White-coat hypertension

Home monitoring

• immediately after awakening (before washing/dressing and taking breakfast/drink), while the body is still resting,
• immediately after finishing work.

Invasive measurement

Classification

Normal values

Physiology

• Rate of pumping. .In the circulatory system, this rate is called heart rate, the rate at which blood (the fluid) is pumped by the heart.^ Blood from the heart pumps throughout the body.
  • High Blood Pressure -- eCureMe.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.ecureme.com [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Our hearts are the pumps in our systems.
  • Can low blood pressure be dangerous? – Paging Dr. Gupta - CNN.com Blogs 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC pagingdrgupta.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ The heart pumps blood throughout the body in vessels called arteries.
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  .The volume of blood flow from the heart is called the cardiac output which is the heart rate (the rate of contraction) multiplied by the stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped out from the heart with each contraction).^ Intrinsic mechanisms of the cardiovascular system stabilize cardiac output via stroke volume and heart rate.
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  ^ If heart rate is increased cardiac output will increase but this increase is not proportional to the increase in heart rate (125).
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  ^ Heart rate and cardiac output remained unchanged.
  • Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  .The higher the heart rate, the higher the arterial pressure, assuming no reduction in stroke volume.^ This is the pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts.
  • High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) | Health | Patient UK 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.patient.co.uk [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ The endothelial cells that line your arteries send out signals that work with your heart and muscle contractions to create the ebb and flow of your blood pressure (systolic=higher number and diastolic=lower number).
  • Blood Pressure - Supplements for Cardiovascualer Support and Healthy Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.wellnessresources.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Are you suffering from issues related to angina pain, high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, unbalanced cholestrol, irregular heart beat, clogged arteries?
  • High Blood Pressure Natural Remedies : Cholesterol Foods : Diabetic Neuropathy Treatment : Foot Care in Diabetes : Heart Natural Remedies : Herbal Treatment for Angina 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.hbextract.com [Source type: Original source]
  
  ^{.December 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[citation needed]}
• Volume of fluid or blood volume, the amount of blood that is present in the body.^ Atrial receptors have a role in the regulation of the volume of body fluids (53, 128).
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  ^ The amino acid arginine is needed by the body to make nitric oxide, a substance that allows blood vessels to dilate, thus leading to reduced blood pressure.
  • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Thus, extracellular volume is controlled by the amount of sodium retained by the body (136).
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  .The more blood present in the body, the higher the rate of blood return to the heart and the resulting cardiac output.^ Blood from the heart pumps throughout the body.
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  ^ Narrowing returns more blood to the heart which may raise blood pressure.
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  ^ If heart rate is increased cardiac output will increase but this increase is not proportional to the increase in heart rate (125).
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  .There is some relationship between dietary salt intake and increased blood volume, potentially resulting in higher arterial pressure, though this varies with the individual and is highly dependent on autonomic nervous system response and the renin-angiotensin system.^ As a result, blood pressure increases.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Thus, arterial pressure will then increase, increasing afterload.
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  ^ Blood volume may be increased also.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^{[citation needed]}
• Resistance. .In the circulatory system, this is the resistance of the blood vessels.^ Blood has a pressure that is maintained within a normal range by various aspects of the circulatory system , such as the heart (pumps to increase/maintain pressure), walls of blood vessels (muscles constrict or dilate blood vessels to increase or reduce blood pressure), clotting (which maintains a closed system by preventing leakage, i.e.
  • Blood pressure - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Calcium constricts blood vessels which increases resistance and reduces the blood supply and oxygen to the heart.
  • Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Shipping Returns Natural remedy to maintain normal blood pressure ranges and support circulatory system health.
  • Maintain Normal Blood Pressure Ranges & Circulatory System Health 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.nativeremedies.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  .The higher the resistance, the higher the arterial pressure upstream from the resistance to blood flow.^ The muscles of the small arteries enlarge, increasing the resistance to blood flow.
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  ^ Thus, an increased blood flow and/or resistance to blood flow will raise blood pressure (35).
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  ^ Evidence shows that the present levels of intake of mineral elements are not optimum for maintaining normal blood pressure but predispose to the development of arterial hypertension.
  • Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  .Resistance is related to vessel radius (the larger the radius, the lower the resistance), vessel length (the longer the vessel, the higher the resistance), as well as the smoothness of the blood vessel walls.^ Beta blocking agents with ISA tend to lower blood pressure by decreasing peripheral vascular resistance without decreasing resting cardiac output (18).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ The older young hypertensives demonstrated lower cardiac output and higher peripheral resistance as indicated by higher arterial pressure [ie.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Seek to lower the force that the muscles of the heart and the blood vessels encounter and thus seek to bring the size down to normal.
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  .Smoothness is reduced by the build up of fatty deposits on the arterial walls.^ Stevia extract, which is often used as a sweetener, relaxes arteries and helps to prevent the buildup of calcium on artery walls, which keeps them healthy and reduces blood pressure.
  • Interactive Marketing Ezine at Vector Central 15 September 2009 7:43 UTC www.vectorcentral.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Pomegranate juice has also been shown to reduce systolic blood pressure by inhibiting enzymes that can put pressure on the arterial walls.
  • Levodyn: Natural Blood Pressure Remedy, Blood Pressure Reducer. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC levodyn.com [Source type: General]
  
  .Substances called vasoconstrictors can reduce the size of blood vessels, thereby increasing BP. Vasodilators (such as nitroglycerin) increase the size of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure.^ As a result, blood pressure increases.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Thus, arterial pressure will then increase, increasing afterload.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Blood pressure is the measurement of the blood that presses against the arteries and blood vessels.
  • Levodyn: Natural Blood Pressure Remedy, Blood Pressure Reducer. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC levodyn.com [Source type: General]
  
  .Resistance, and its relation to volumetric flow rate (Q) and pressure difference between the two ends of a vessel are described by Poiseuille's Law.
• Viscosity, or thickness of the fluid.^ The rate of fluid movement across exchange vessel walls is proportional to the difference between the hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures (100).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ With the increased resistance, renal blood flow is impeded and glomerular filtration rate may decrease.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Smoking damages the heart and arteries, while the nicotine constricts blood vessels, increases heart rate, and raises blood pressure.
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  .If the blood gets thicker, the result is an increase in arterial pressure.^ As a result, blood pressure increases.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Thus, arterial pressure will then increase, increasing afterload.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Blood pressure is defined as that force which blood exerts on the arterial wall during its normal flow through them.
  • high blood pressure | high blood pressure home remedies| natural remedy for high blood pressure| natural cure for high blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.herbalcureindia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  .Certain medical conditions can change the viscosity of the blood.^ Of those conditions, the easiest to understand are the changes in the set point of blood pressure - either too low (hypotension) or too high (hypertension).
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  ^ The reflex regulation system of baroreceptors [pressoreceptors] is able to control sudden changes in blood pressure with these conditions.
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  .For instance, low red blood cell concentration, anemia, reduces viscosity, whereas increased red blood cell concentration increases viscosity.^ Red blood cell Na+/H+ and Li+/Na+ exchange in patients with essential hypertension.
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  ^ D concentration in the blood is not linked to a reduced risk of prostate cancer .
  • Health News Updates: May 28, 2008 15 September 2009 7:43 UTC health.iwc.cc [Source type: General]
  
  ^ All things being equal, a low plasma volume would increase the concentration of positive colloid pressure drawing fluid from the interstitium to the capillary, increasing intravascular volume.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  .Viscosity also increases with blood sugar concentration—visualize pumping syrup.^ For example, an increase in the amount of blood pumped out by the heart—which tends to increase blood pressure—causes dilation of blood vessels and an increase in the kidneys' excretion of salt and water—which tend to reduce blood pressure.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Decreased levels of potassium and magnesium, temporarily increased levels of blood sugar and cholesterol, an increased level of uric acid, sexual dysfunction in men, and digestive upset .
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Sugar has been reported to increase blood pressure in animals 12 and humans in short-term trials.
  • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
  
  It had been thought that aspirin and related "blood thinner" drugs decreased the viscosity of blood, but studies found^[29] that they act by reducing the tendency of the blood to clot instead.

Mean arterial pressure

.MAP can be approximately determined from measurements of the systolic pressure ^ Results of the exercise stimulus on blood pressure were expressed as changes in either systolic [SBP], diastolic [DBP], or mean [MAP], arterial pressure.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Significant results of the exercise stimulus on blood pressure were expressed as changes in either systolic [SBP], diastolic [DBP], or mean [MAP], arterial pressure are also reported.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Thus, approximately 70% of the studies that investigated SBP, DBP, and MAP reported significant reductions in blood pressure following the exercise intervention.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

P_{sys}" src="http://images-mediawiki-sites.thefullwiki.org/08/2/2/8/64432763282007820.png" />  and the diastolic pressure   while there is a normal resting heart rate,^[30]

Pulse pressure

Vascular resistance

Vascular pressure wave

Regulation

• Baroreceptor reflex: Baroreceptors detect changes in arterial pressure and send signals ultimately to the medulla of the brain stem.^ Because the receptor is sensitive to mean pressure and the rate of change in pressure, reflex responses are dependent upon mean arterial pressure, pulse pressure and heart rate (19, 40, 83, 133).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ The baroreceptor set point and central control mechanisms regulate mean arterial pressure [MAP], must also be considered.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Results of the exercise stimulus on blood pressure were expressed as changes in either systolic [SBP], diastolic [DBP], or mean [MAP], arterial pressure.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  .The medulla, by way of the autonomic nervous system, adjusts the mean arterial pressure by altering both the force and speed of the heart's contractions, as well as the total peripheral resistance.^ Either by altering flow, total peripheral resistance, or both (73, 124).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ This conclusion is based on the fact that mean arterial pressure [MAP] is the product of cardiac output; [Q] = [heart rate X stroke volume], and total peripheral resistance [TPR], thus, [MAP = CO X TPR](35).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Secondly, some inhibitors will block the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Drugs of both modes will decrease peripheral vascular resistance (149), with little, if any, effect on heart rate, cardiac output or body fluid volumes (18).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  .The most important arterial baroreceptors are located in the left and right carotid sinuses and in the aortic arch.^ The chemoreceptors are located close to the arterial baroreceptors and within the central nervous system (125).
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ The carotid body is a small mass of tissue but receives a high volume of blood flow and is located close to the carotid baroreceptors (125).
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  ^ It is sensitive to changes in the partial pressure of oxygen and pH. The bodies in the aortic arch respond in a similar fashion as the carotid, but their response is attenuated under comparison.
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  ^[35]
.

• Renin-angiotensin system (RAS): This system is generally known for its long-term adjustment of arterial pressure.^ These include fluid shifts in the microvascular circulation and the renin?angiotensin system.
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  ^ A few reports have even claimed that long-term coffee drinkers tend to have lower blood pressure than those who avoid coffee.
  • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Efferent splanic activity and systemic arterial pressure.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  .This system allows the kidney to compensate for loss in blood volume or drops in arterial pressure by activating an endogenous vasoconstrictor known as angiotensin II.

• Aldosterone release: This steroid hormone is released from the adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II or high serum potassium levels.^ High blood pressure is a factor in hardening of the arteries ...
  • Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Drop Your Blood Pressure" program .
  • Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Drop Your Blood Pressure" program: .
  • Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]
  
  .Aldosterone stimulates sodium retention and potassium excretion by the kidneys.^ Aldosterone is the most important determinant of sodium retention in the kidney.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain salt (sodium) and excrete potassium.
  • High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ The kidneys control blood pressure through the retention and excretion of extracellular fluid.
  • blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  Since sodium is the main ion that determines the amount of fluid in the blood vessels by osmosis, aldosterone will increase fluid retention, and indirectly, arterial pressure.

.These different mechanisms are not necessarily independent of each other, as indicated by the link between the RAS and aldosterone release.^ Studies indicating marked differences in these intrinsic variables are probably also affected by superimposed disease or deconditioning (18, 88).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Perhaps what is most intriguing is the difference in the magnitude of response between the two races when other factors associated with hypertension are combined with race.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ These views, positions, and publications are not endorsed by nor do they necessarily represent the views of the Deployment Health Clinical Center or any other US government agency or department.

• Health News Updates: May 28, 2008 15 September 2009 7:43 UTC health.iwc.cc [Source type: General]

.Currently, the RAS system is targeted pharmacologically by ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists.^ "Avapro is an angiotensin 2 receptor antagonist.

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^ Ang I is converted to the active octapeptide angiotensin II (Ang II) by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and non-ACE pathways.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.The aldosterone system is directly targeted by spironolactone, an aldosterone antagonist.^ Of the three agents listed in Table 1, spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist, while both amiloride and triamterene directly inhibit potassium secretion (18).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.The fluid retention may be targeted by diuretics; the antihypertensive effect of diuretics is due to its effect on blood volume.^ Antihypertensive and volume depleting effects of mild exercise on essential hypertension.

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^ The kidneys control blood pressure through the retention and excretion of extracellular fluid.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Aldosterone will increase sodium absorption at the kidney, thus allowing for fluid retention and increasing plasma volume (125).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.Generally, the baroreceptor reflex is not targeted in hypertension because if blocked, individuals may suffer from orthostatic hypotension and fainting.^ That means if you suffer from high blood pressure or hypertension, your doctor won't prescribe the medication for you - because he or she will be worried about you suffering from a heart attack.

• Levodyn: Natural Blood Pressure Remedy, Blood Pressure Reducer. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC levodyn.com [Source type: General]

^ All centrally acting drugs may have typical side effects of sedation, dry mouth, orthostatic hypotension, impotence, and galactorrhea (18).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Peripheral neuron inhibitors are often combined with diuretics, and may share common side effects of orthostatic hypotension (18).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

Pathophysiology

High arterial pressure

Main article: Hypertension

Overview of main complications of persistent high blood pressure.

.Arterial hypertension can be an indicator of other problems and may have long-term adverse effects.^ The older young hypertensives demonstrated lower cardiac output and higher peripheral resistance as indicated by higher arterial pressure [ie.

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^ They may attempt to reduce symptoms using prescription drugs that can have other very negative side effects.

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^ New generation vasodilation drugs such as the calcium antagonists and converting enzyme inhibitors may be used as monotherapy because they have fewer side effects with both short and long term use (18).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

Sometimes it can be an acute problem, for example hypertensive emergency.

.All levels of arterial pressure put mechanical stress on the arterial walls.^ Evidence shows that the present levels of intake of mineral elements are not optimum for maintaining normal blood pressure but predispose to the development of arterial hypertension.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ In that report, all 15 people who also had high blood pressure experienced a significant drop in blood pressure when put on a hypoallergenic diet .

• Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Over time, high blood pressure weakens artery walls, leading to a bulging blood vessel ...

• Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]

.Higher pressures increase heart workload and progression of unhealthy tissue growth (atheroma) that develops within the walls of arteries.^ This is the pressure of the blood against the inner walls of arteries, which carry blood from the heart.

• High blood pressure in adults 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC patients.uptodate.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Each time the heart beats, the pressure in the arteries increases.

• Steeles.com - Taking Your Own Blood Pressure 20 November 2009 23:34 UTC www.steeles.com [Source type: General]

^ High blood pressure adds to the workload of the heart and arteries.

• Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC kidshealth.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
• Blood Pressure, Diet Advice: Maintain Normal Systolic, Diastolic Pressures: Healthy Eating to Avoid Hypertension 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.diet-i.com [Source type: General]

.The higher the pressure, the more stress that is present and the more atheroma tend to progress and the heart muscle tends to thicken, enlarge and become weaker over time.^ Middle?age men have higher blood pressures than middle?aged women, but during this time the rate in increase of systolic blood pressure is greater in women than in men (29).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Shrinks an enlarged heart Enjoy more energy, increased mobility with less tiredness.

• High Blood Pressure Natural Remedies : Cholesterol Foods : Diabetic Neuropathy Treatment : Foot Care in Diabetes : Heart Natural Remedies : Herbal Treatment for Angina 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.hbextract.com [Source type: Original source]

^ People in high stress professions such as airline pilots and race drivers do not have higher levels of blood pressure than the general public.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Persistent hypertension is one of the risk factors for strokes, heart attacks, heart failure and arterial aneurysms, and is the leading cause of chronic renal failure.^ Heart artery plaque is often the cause for hypertension.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Kannel, W.B. Hypertension and other risk factors in coronary heart disease.

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^ Baroreceptor function in chronic renal hypertension.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.Even moderate elevation of arterial pressure leads to shortened life expectancy.^ But in some rare instances, low blood pressure can be a sign of serious, even life-threatening disorders.

• Low blood pressure (hypotension) 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.cnn.com [Source type: General]

^ An increase in extracellular volume without compensation from the kidney has been shown to maintain elevated arterial pressure (136).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Complications Even moderate forms of low blood pressure can cause not only dizziness and weakness but also fainting and a risk of injury from falls.

• Low blood pressure (hypotension) 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.cnn.com [Source type: General]

.At severely high pressures, mean arterial pressures 50% or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated.^ High blood pressure can be treated .

• Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]

^ The protocol specified below has been shown to reduce artery plaque by 50% over a two-year period as determined by accurate angiogram procedures.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ High blood pressure is a factor in hardening of the arteries ...

• Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]

^[36]

.In the past, most attention was paid to diastolic pressure; but nowadays it is recognised that both high systolic pressure and high pulse pressure (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are also risk factors.^ What is the difference between high blood pressure and hypertension?

• Levodyn: Natural Blood Pressure Remedy, Blood Pressure Reducer. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC levodyn.com [Source type: General]

^ The rate of fluid movement across exchange vessel walls is proportional to the difference between the hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures (100).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Hypertension or high blood pressure is a risk factor for heart disease, stroke and other cardiovascular conditions.

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

.In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, due probably to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (see the article on pulse pressure).^ The rate of fluid movement across exchange vessel walls is proportional to the difference between the hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures (100).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Middle?age men have higher blood pressures than middle?aged women, but during this time the rate in increase of systolic blood pressure is greater in women than in men (29).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ A review of 24 intervention studies that used moderate sodium restrictions, (approximately 2 grams per day), produced a decrease of 5.4 mmHg systolic and 6.5 mmHg diastolic blood pressure (134).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

Low arterial pressure

Main article: Hypotension

.Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension.^ Low blood pressure (hypotension) is a disease that need be treated.

• Low Blood Pressure Is Not Normal 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC low-blood-pressure.blogspot.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Low blood pressure Hyperparathyroidism ...

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Neurological causes of low blood pressure.

• Slideshow: Low Blood Pressure Pictures on RxList.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.rxlist.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The similarity in pronunciation with hypertension can cause confusion. .Hypotension is a medical concern only if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, shock.^ Medical articles on signs and symptoms: .

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Symptoms related to Blood pressure symptoms: High blood pressure (266 causes), Low blood pressure (341 causes), Blood pressure symptoms (590 causes), Hypertension (266 causes), Hypotension (341 causes), Headache (2060 causes), Orthostatic hypertension, Giddiness (9 causes) .

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Research the causes of related medical symptoms such as: Blood pressure Blood pressure disorders Blood (1417 causes) Blood disease Blood disorder Pressure (130 causes) more symptoms...» Causes of Similar Symptoms to Blood pressure symptoms .

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

^[18]

.When arterial pressure and blood flow decrease beyond a certain point, the perfusion of the brain becomes critically decreased (i.e., the blood supply is not sufficient), causing lightheadedness, dizziness, weakness or fainting.^ Aspartame causes high blood pressure.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Glutamate causes blood pressure to skyrocket.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ High blood pressure is not the only cause.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Sometimes the arterial pressure drops significantly when a patient stands up from sitting.^ These patients had serious hypertension with an average sitting systolic blood pressure between 160 and 219 mmHg.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Some of these are listed below : Physical examination Blood pressure - sitting and standing in both arms.

• Blood pressure symptoms - WrongDiagnosis.com 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC wrongdiagnosis.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Total body potassium was found to be significantly decreased in patients with essential hypertension (101), and those hypertensives that have supplemented the diet with potassium demonstrate decreases in systemic pressure (145).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.This is known as orthostatic hypotension (postural hypotension); gravity reduces the rate of blood return from the body veins below the heart back to the heart, thus reducing stroke volume and cardiac output.^ Intrinsic mechanisms of the cardiovascular system stabilize cardiac output via stroke volume and heart rate.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ If heart rate is increased cardiac output will increase but this increase is not proportional to the increase in heart rate (125).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Cardiac output is reduced via a decreased heart rate and myocardial contractility (149).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.When people are healthy, the veins below their heart quickly constrict and the heart rate increases to minimize and compensate for the gravity effect.^ Heart rate properties that affect flow include: 1) an increase in heart rate which will increase the contractile strength and, 2) transient changes in heart rate where the contractility decreases with lower rates and increases with higher rates (125).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ If heart rate is increased cardiac output will increase but this increase is not proportional to the increase in heart rate (125).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ This is because with an increase in heart rate: 1) there will be a decreased preload, and 2) an increased afterload.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.This is carried out involuntarily by the autonomic nervous system.^ Baroreceptors provide an effective means for detecting changes in blood pressure and bringing about appropriate responses, via the autonomic nervous system.

• blood pressure – FREE blood pressure information | Encyclopedia.com: Find blood pressure research 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.encyclopedia.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Magnesium, Muscle Mag™ Magnesium is the top mineral for relaxing the circulatory system and smoothing out your nervous system's electrical signals to your heart.

• Blood Pressure - Supplements for Cardiovascualer Support and Healthy Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.wellnessresources.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This combination of events may be accompanied by problems in the autonomic nervous system and imbalances that can lead to excessive constriction of the blood vessels and hypertension.

• WHFoods: Hypertension (high blood pressure) 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.whfoods.com [Source type: Academic]

.The system usually requires a few seconds to fully adjust and if the compensations are too slow or inadequate, the individual will suffer reduced blood flow to the brain, dizziness and potential blackout.^ Rarely, blood flow to the brain is reduced by a disorder of the blood vessels at the base of the brain.

• Fainting: Low Blood Pressure: Merck Manual Home Edition 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This disturbance usually involves a reduction in blood flow to the brain.

• Fainting: Low Blood Pressure: Merck Manual Home Edition 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ If blood pressure at rest stays at 140/90 or more, it means that the individual is suffering from hypertension.

• High Blood Pressure - High Blood Pressure Herbal Supplements 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.herbsmd.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Increases in G-loading, such as routinely experienced by aerobatic or combat pilots 'pulling Gs', greatly increases this effect. Repositioning the body perpendicular to gravity largely eliminates the problem.

Other causes of low arterial pressure include:

• Sepsis
• Hemorrhage - blood loss
• Toxins including toxic doses of BP medicine
• Hormonal abnormalities, such as Addison's disease

Shock is a complex condition which leads to critically decreased perfusion. .The usual mechanisms are loss of blood volume, pooling of blood within the veins reducing adequate return to the heart and/or low effective heart pumping.^ The blood then returns to your heart through the veins.

• Welcome To West LA Medical & Skincare - Dr. David P Melamed 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.westlamed.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
• High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.nymedicaldoctor.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Electrocardiography (ECG) (see Symptoms and Diagnosis of Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Electrocardiography ) is usually performed to detect changes in the heart—particularly thickening (hypertrophy) of the heart muscle or heart enlargement.

• High Blood Pressure: Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Merck Manual Home Edition 15 September 2009 6:06 UTC www.merck.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Posted On July 29, 2008 11:41:40 AM ...: Increased sodium intake results in a higher blood volume, which in turn requires the heart to work harder to pump blood to all the tissues in the body.

• Lower High Blood Pressure | LIVESTRONG.COM 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.livestrong.com [Source type: General]

.Low arterial pressure, especially low pulse pressure, is a sign of shock and contributes to and reflects decreased perfusion.^ A reduction in body mass achieves a proportionate decrease of arterial pressure (154).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ In animal studies oleuropein, one of the constituents of olive leaf , has decreased blood pressure and dilated arteries surrounding the heart, when given by injection or intravenously.

• Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]

^ A decrease in the pressure at the renal artery, an activation of the sympathetic nerve fibers to the kidney, or a decrease in the amount of sodium passing through the distal tubule of the kidney, will prompt the release of renin.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

.If there is a significant difference in the pressure from one arm to the other, that may indicate a narrowing (for example, due to aortic coarctation, aortic dissection, thrombosis or embolism) of an artery.^ These systems function to regulate blood pressure and all of these systems may age at different rates.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ None of the studies that reported significant changes in blood pressure in borderline and essential hypertensives reported changes in the determinants, however, less than one-third of the studies in borderline hypertension even investigated the determinants.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Insulin may also elevate blood pressure by two other mechanisms.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

Other sites

.Blood pressure generally refers to the arterial pressure in the systemic circulation.^ Evidence shows that the present levels of intake of mineral elements are not optimum for maintaining normal blood pressure but predispose to the development of arterial hypertension.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ These systems function to regulate blood pressure and all of these systems may age at different rates.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ High blood pressure is a factor in hardening of the arteries ...

• Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]

.However, measurement of pressures in the venous system and the pulmonary vessels plays an important role in intensive care medicine but requires an invasive central venous catheter.^ July 5, 2001 - Bethesda, MD, USA A marijuana-like substance that occurs naturally in the body may play a significant role in lowering blood pressure, according to research published in the new issue of Nature Medicine.

• Body's Natural 'Cannabis' May Play Role in Lowering Blood Pressure - NORML 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.norml.org [Source type: News]

^ Extremely high blood pressure (malignant hypertension) or rapidly worsening hypertension (accelerated hypertension) almost always requires treatment with conventional medicine.

• Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]

^ Centrally acting sympatholytic agents lower blood pressure by decreasing the sympathetic outflow from the central nervous system (18).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

Venous pressure

Venous pressure is the vascular pressure in a vein or in the atria of the heart. .It is much less than arterial pressure, with common values of 5 mmHg in the right atrium and 8 mmHg in the left atrium.^ None of the studies that reported significant changes in blood pressure in borderline and essential hypertensives reported changes in the determinants, however, less than one-third of the studies in borderline hypertension even investigated the determinants.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Getting too much sodium chloride (table salt) in the diet coupled with diminished dietary potassium is a common cause of high blood pressure.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ But much more important than that is to stop high blood pressure now!

• Lower blood pressure naturally 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC control-your-blood-pressure.com [Source type: General]

Pulmonary pressure

Main article: Pulmonary artery pressure

.Normally, the pressure in the pulmonary artery is about 15 mmHg at rest.^ Evidence shows that the present levels of intake of mineral elements are not optimum for maintaining normal blood pressure but predispose to the development of arterial hypertension.

• Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A borderline hypertensive adult will present a resting blood pressure between 140/90 ?160/95 mmHg and often demonstrates hemodynamics of Stage I (154).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Mean arterial pressure also increases from 85 mmHg at age 25 to about 104 mmHg at age 75; an increase of 22 percent (99).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^[37]

.Increased BP in the capillaries of the lung cause pulmonary hypertension, with interstitial edema if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to frank pulmonary edema at pressures above 25 mmHg.^ Individuals who are sodium sensitive will have an increase in blood pressure, regardless of their hypertensive status, when additional sodium is added to the diet (56).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ WHO has defined borderline hypertension as a blood pressure > 140/90 mmHg, and essential hypertension as > 160/95 mmHg.

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ People with hypertension who do not have this nighttime blood pressure decline are at increased risk of developing and dying from heart disease.

• Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]

^[38]

Fetal blood pressure

Further information: Fetal circulation#Blood pressure

.In pregnancy, it is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal BP to drive its blood through the fetal circulation.^ Blood pressure reductions through slow breathing last a little longer each day, building up until they last around the clock within a few short weeks.

• Lower blood pressure naturally 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC control-your-blood-pressure.com [Source type: General]

^ When your heart rate and blood pressure rise, your breathing rate goes up in unison.

• Lower blood pressure naturally 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC control-your-blood-pressure.com [Source type: General]

^ The weakening of the heart muscle that can leave you with blood backing up in your legs - or worse - your lungs?

• Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]

.The BP in the fetal aorta is approximately 30 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, and increases to ca 45 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.^ With the static response, firing rate will be minimal at a pressure of 20 to 50 mmHg, below which no firing will occur, and the frequency of the firing will increase as the pressure increases above this threshold (19, 40, 83, 133).

• blood pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.emunix.emich.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ It only takes 15 minutes a day and I can easily lower my BP about 20-30 points after one session.

• Lower blood pressure naturally 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC control-your-blood-pressure.com [Source type: General]

^[39]
The average BP for full-term infants:
Systolic 65–95 mm Hg
Diastolic 30–60 mm Hg ^[40]

See also

• Ambulatory blood pressure
• Antihypertensive
• Auscultatory gap
• Central venous pressure
• Hypertension
• Hypotension
• Korotkoff sounds
• Lactotripeptides
• Mean arterial pressure
• Prehypertension
• Pulse pressure
• Pulse rate
• Resperate
• Sphygmomanometer
• Vital signs

References

.

1. Pickering, TG; Hall, JE; Appel, LJ et al.^ Schnall PL, Schwartz JE, Landesbergis PA, et al.
   • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
   
   ^ Burke V, Hodgson JM, Beilin LJ, et al.
   • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
   
   ^ He J, Whelton PK, Appel LJ, et al.
   • Harris Teeter - High Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.harristeeter.com [Source type: Academic]
   
   (2005). ."Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: Part 1: blood pressure measurement in humans: a statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research".^ Aspartame causes high blood pressure.
   • Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
   
   ^ High blood pressure.
   • Hypertension, High Blood Pressure Control, Heart Palpitations,Arrhythmias, Mitral Valve Prolapse and Blood Testing. 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.biblelife.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
   
   ^ American Heart Association's 2006 Update ...
   • Natural Blood Pressure 19 January 2010 8:48 UTC www.naturalbloodpressure.com [Source type: General]
   
   Hypertension 45 (5): 142–61. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000150859.47929.8e. PMID 15611362. http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/45/1/142. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 

Footnotes

1. ^ Klabunde, Richard (2005). Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 93–4. ISBN 978-0781750301. 
2. ^ Booth, J (1977). "A short history of blood pressure measurement". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 70 (11): 793–9. PMID 341169. PMID 341169. PMC 1543468. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1543468. Retrieved 2009-10-06. 
3. ^ Deakin CD, Low JL (September 2000). "Accuracy of the advanced trauma life support guidelines for predicting systolic blood pressure using carotid, femoral, and radial pulses: observational study". BMJ 321 (7262): 673–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7262.673. PMID 10987771. PMC 27481. http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10987771. 
4. ^ Interpretation - Blood Pressure - Vitals, "University of Florida". Retrieved on 2008-03-18.
5. ^ G8 Secondary Survey, "Manitoba". Retrieved on 2008-03-18.
6. ^ (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 146) See Blood Pressure Measurement Methods.
7. ^ (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 147) See The Oscillometric Technique.
8. ^ Laurent, P (2003-09-28). "Blood Pressure & Hypertension". http://www.blood-pressure-hypertension.com/how-to-measure/measure-blood-pressure-8.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-05. 
9. ^ Elliot, Victoria Stagg (2007-06-11). "Blood pressure readings often unreliable". American Medical News (American Medical Association). http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2007/06/11/hlsa0611.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-16. 
10. ^ Jhalani, Juhee; Tanya Goyal, Lynn Clemow, et al (2005). "Anxiety and outcome expectations predict the white-coat effect". Blood Pressure Monitoring 10 (6): 317–9. doi:10.1097/00126097-200512000-00006. PMID 16496447. PMID 16496447. http://journals.lww.com/bpmonitoring/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2005&issue=12000&article=00006&type=abstract. Retrieved 2009-10-03. 
11. ^ (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 145) See White Coat Hypertension or Isolated Office Hypertension.
12. ^ (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 146) See Masked Hypertension or Isolated Ambulatory Hypertension.
13. ^ ^{a b} Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, et al (June 2007). "2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)". Eur Heart J 28 (12): 1462–536. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm236. PMID 17562668. 
14. ^ ^{a b} Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al (December 2003). "Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure". Hypertension 42 (6): 1206–52. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2. PMID 14656957. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/hypertension/. 
15. ^ Niiranen, TJ; Kantola IM, Vesalainen R, et al (2006). "A comparison of home measurement and ambulatory monitoring of blood pressure in the adjustment of antihypertensive treatment". Am J Hypertens 19 (5): 468–74. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2005.10.017. PMID 16647616. 
16. ^ Shimbo, Daichi; Thomas G. Pickering, Tanya M. Spruill, et al (2007). "Relative utility of home, ambulatory, and office blood pressures in the prediction of end-organ damage" (). Am J Hypertens 20 (5): 476–82. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2006.12.011. PMID 17485006. PMC 1931502. http://www.nature.com/ajh/journal/v20/n5/abs/ajh200783a.html. 
17. ^ National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Tips for having your blood pressure taken. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/hbp/detect/tips.htm. 
18. ^ ^{a b} "Diseases and Conditions Index - Hypotension". National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. September 2008. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/hyp/hyp_whatis.html. Retrieved 2008-09-16. 
19. ^ Pesola GR, Pesola HR, Nelson MJ, Westfal RE (January 2001). "The normal difference in bilateral indirect BP recordings in normotensive individuals". Am J Emerg Med 19 (1): 43–5. doi:10.1053/ajem.2001.20021. PMID 11146017. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W9K-45SRDHC-C&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2001&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=74f2b32e088d88986cd307f6c7219331. 
20. ^ Reckelhoff, Jane F. (1 May 2001). "Gender Differences in the Regulation of Blood Pressure". Hypertension 37 (5): 1199–208. PMID 11358929. PMID 11358929. http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/hypertensionaha;37/5/1199. 
21. ^ National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Blood Pressure Tables for Children and Adolescents. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/hypertension/child_tbl.htm.  (Note that the median BP is given by the 50th percentile and hypertension is defined by the 95th percentile for a given age, height, and gender.)
22. ^ (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 145) See Isolated Systolic Hypertension.
23. ^ "...more than half of all Americans aged 65 or older have hypertension." (Pickering et al. 2005, p. 144)
24. ^ Eguchi K, Yacoub M, Jhalani J, Gerin W, Schwartz JE, Pickering TG (February 2007). "Consistency of blood pressure differences between the left and right arms". Arch Intern Med 167 (4): 388–93. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.388. PMID 17325301. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/167/4/388. 
25. ^ Agarwal R, Bunaye Z, Bekele DM (March 2008). "Prognostic significance of between-arm blood pressure differences". Hypertension 51 (3): 657–62. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.104943. PMID 18212263. 
26. ^ Appel LJ, Brands MW, Daniels SR, Karanja N, Elmer PJ, Sacks FM (February 2006). "Dietary approaches to prevent and treat hypertension: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Hypertension 47 (2): 296–308. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000202568.01167.B6. PMID 16434724. 
27. ^ "Hypertension: management of hypertension in adults in primary care". NICE Clinical Guideline 34. London, England: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). June 2006. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG034NICEguideline.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-15. 
28. ^ [1]
29. ^ Rosenson RS, Wolff D, Green D, Boss AH, Kensey KR (February 2004). "Aspirin. Aspirin does not alter native blood viscosity". J. Thromb. Haemost. 2 (2): 340–1. PMID 14996003. 
30. ^ ^{a b} Klabunde, RE (2007). "Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts - Mean Arterial Pressure". http://www.cvphysiology.com/Blood%20Pressure/BP006.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-29.  Archived version 2009-10-03
31. ^ ^{a b} Klabunde, RE (2007). "Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts - Pulse Pressure". http://www.cvphysiology.com/Blood%20Pressure/BP003.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-02.  Archived version 2009-10-03
32. ^ Messerli FH, Williams B, Ritz E (2007). "Essential hypertension". Lancet 370 (9587): 591–603. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61299-9. PMID 17707755. 
33. ^ O'Rourke M (1 July 1995). "Mechanical principles in arterial disease". Hypertension 26 (1): 2–9. PMID 7607724. http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/2. 
34. ^ Mitchell GF (2006). "Triangulating the peaks of arterial pressure". Hypertension 48 (4): 543–5. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000238325.41764.41. PMID 16940226. http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/48/4/543. 
35. ^ Klabunde, RE (2007). "Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts - Arterial Baroreceptors". http://www.cvphysiology.com/Blood%20Pressure/BP012.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-09.  Archived version 2009-10-03
36. ^ Textbook of Medical Physiology, 7th Ed., Guyton & Hall, Elsevier-Saunders, ISBN 0-7216-0240-1, page 220.
37. ^ What Is Pulmonary Hypertension? From Diseases and Conditions Index (DCI). National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Last updated September 2008. Retrieved on 6 April, 2009.
38. ^ Chapter 41, page 210 in: Cardiology secrets By Olivia Vynn Adair Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Elsevier Health Sciences, 2001 ISBN 1560534206, 9781560534204
39. ^ Struijk PC, Mathews VJ, Loupas T, et al (October 2008). "Blood pressure estimation in the human fetal descending aorta". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 32 (5): 673–81. doi:10.1002/uog.6137. PMID 18816497. 
40. ^ Sharon, S. M. & Emily, S. M.(2006). Fundations of Maternal-Newborn Nursing. (4th ed p.476). Philadelphia:Elsevier.

External links

• High Blood Pressure, The Institute for Good Medicine at the Pennsylvania Medical Society
• Blood Pressure Association (UK)
• British Hypertension Society: list of validated blood pressure monitors
• Blood pressure monitoring
• Pulmonary Hypertension Cleveland Clinic
• Blood Pressure Calculator for Diagnosis of High blood pressure in Children and Adolescents
• dablEducational Trust: Blood pressure monitors - Validations, Papers, and Reviews
• American Heart Association[2]

Cardiovascular system, physiology: cardiovascular physiology Heart Volumes Stroke volume = End-diastolic volume – End-systolic volume Cardiac output = Heart rate · Stroke volume Afterload · Preload Frank-Starling law of the heart · Cardiac function curve · Venous return curve Aortic valve area calculation · Ejection fraction · Cardiac index Interaction diagrams Cardiac cycle · Wiggers diagram · Pressure volume diagram Tropism Chronotropic (Heart rate) · Dromotropic (Conduction velocity) · Inotropic (Contractility) · Batmotropic (Excitability) · Lusitropic (Relaxation) Conduction system / Cardiac electrophysiology Cardiac action potential (Atrial action potential, Ventricular action potential) · Effective refractory period · Pacemaker potential · EKG (P wave, PR interval, QRS complex, QT interval, ST segment, T wave, U wave) · Hexaxial reference system Chamber pressure Central venous pressure/right atrial pressure → Right ventricular pressure → Pulmonary artery pressure → Pulmonary wedge pressure/left atrial pressure → Left ventricular pressure → Aortic pressure Other Ventricular remodeling Vascular system/ Hemodynamics Blood flow Compliance · Vascular resistance (Total peripheral resistance) · Pulse · Perfusion Blood pressure Pulse pressure (Systolic - Diastolic) · Mean arterial pressure Jugular venous pressure Portal venous pressure Regulation of BP Baroreflex · Kinin-kallikrein system · Renin-angiotensin system · Vasoconstrictors/Vasodilators · Autoregulation (Myogenic mechanism, Tubuloglomerular feedback) · Paraganglia (Aortic body, Carotid body, Glomus cell) heart navs: anat/physio/dev, noncongen/congen/neoplasia, symptoms+signs/eponymous, proc vascular navs: anat/physio/dev, noncongen/systemic vasculitis/congen/neoplasia, symptoms+signs/eponymous, proc

Categories: Blood pressure | Cardiovascular system | Blood | Medical signs

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