.^ BULGARIA, a kingdom of south-eastern Europe , situated in the north-east of the Balkan Peninsula , and on the Black Sea.
^ Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast ro m.
^ At its eastern extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Emine ("Haemus"), the northern forming the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling directly into the Black Sea.
.^ From 1878 until the 5th of October 1908, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary principality, under the suzerainty of the sultan of Turkey .
^ This unfortunate step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and represented Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern rebuff, and fatally compromised his position.
^ On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885 (i.e.
.^ The area of the kingdom amounts to 37, 2 4 0 sq.
m., and comprises the territories between the
.^ Balkan chain and the river Danube ; the province of Eastern Rumelia , lying south of the Balkans; and the western highlands of Kiustendil , Samakov, Sofia and Trn.
^ At its eastern extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Emine ("Haemus"), the northern forming the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling directly into the Black Sea.
^ From this point the western or Servian frontier passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the west, reaching the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction with the Danube.
.^ On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 m.
^ Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast ro m.
^ Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage.
S. of
Mangalia.
.^ On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 m.
^ Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast ro m.
^ Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage.
.^ S. of Sozopolis, runs in a south- westerly direction, crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa Pasha , and reaching the Arda at Adakali.
.^ The present frontier, passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and Bulgarian territories meet.
^ The line laid down by the Berlin Treaty (1878) ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and Rupchus included in this boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886.
^ The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytke (7179 ft.
.^ From this point the western or Servian frontier passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the west, reaching the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction with the Danube.
^ The present frontier, passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and Bulgarian territories meet.
^ Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast ro m.
.^ A considerable portion of Macedonia , the districts of Pirot and Vranya belonging to Servia , the northern half of the vilayet of Adrianople , and large tracts of the Dobrudja , are, according to the best and most impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by a Bulgarian population.
^ It was taken over by the Bulgarian government in 1908 (see History, below).
^ The Berlin Treaty boundary was far from corresponding with the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian race, which were more accurately defined by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano (see below, under History).
Physical Features
.^ The most striking physical features are two' mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable.
^ The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytke (7179 ft.
distance, forms its southern boundary.
.^ The Balkans constitute the southern half of the great semicircular range known as the antiDacian system, of which the Carpathians form the northern portion.
^ Magnificent forests of beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the southern slope is bare.
^ The Cretaceous system , from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the Balkans to the Danube.
This great chain is sundered at the
Iron Gates by the passage of the
Danube; its two component parts present many points of resemblance
in their aspect and outline, geological formation and
flora.
.^ The Balkans (ancient Haemus ) run almost parallel to the Danube, Longitude East 26° of Greenwich , 28° the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, rounded, and the slopes gentle.
^ The most striking physical features are two' mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable.
.^ The culminating points are in the centre of the range: Yumrukchal (7835 ft.
),
.^ Maraguduk (7808 ft.
), and `Kadimlia
(7464 ft.).
.^ The Balkans are known to the people of the country as the Stara Planina or "Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their greater size as compared with that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkan" is not a distinctive term, being applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the Turks , to all mountains.
^ The Archean, composed of gneiss and crystalline schists , and traversed by eruptive veins , extends over the greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope, and the adjacent ranges.
^ A. Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so as to avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it.- Country Profile - Bulgaria 19 January 2010 9:49 UTC www.un.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Closely parallel, on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.
^ The rose -fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh.
) and the Karaja
Dagh, enclosing respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and
Kazanlyk.
.^ Convention on cooperation for the protection and sustainable use of the Danube River - Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe .- Country Profile - Bulgaria 19 January 2010 9:49 UTC www.un.org [Source type: Academic]
The Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether distinct
from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the Malka
Planina and the I khtiman hills, respectively west and east of
Sofia; it may be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine
system which traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric
Alps and the Shar Planina on the west
to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines
and
pine-clad steeps reproduce the
scenery of the Alps rather than that of the Balkans.
.^ The imposing summit of Musalla (9631 ft.
), next to
Olympus, the highest in the Peninsula, forms
the centre-point of the group; it stands within the Bulgarian
frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either side of which
the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and south-east
respectively towards the Aegean.
.^ The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytke (7179 ft.
^ The most striking physical features are two' mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable.
) and
.^ Karlyk (6828 ft.
), are within the frontier.
.^ From Musalla in a westerly direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this chain attain 7000 ft.
^ The present frontier, passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and Bulgarian territories meet.
^ Magnificent forests of beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the southern slope is bare.
.^ Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (739 2 ft.
).
.^ To the north of the Rilska Planina the almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.
)
overhangs Sofia.
Snow and
ice remain in the sheltered crevices of
Rhodope and the Balkans throughout the summer. The fertile slope
trending northwards from the Balkans to the Danube is for the most
part gradual and broken by hills; the eastern portion known as the
Deli Orman, or "Wild Wood," is covered by forest, and
thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous character of
the Bulgarian
bank of the Danube contrasts with the
swampy lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria
is watered by the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern
Lom, all, except the Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing
into the Danube. The channels of these rivers are deeply furrowed
and the fall is rapid;
irrigation is consequently difficult and
navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is remarkable: rising
in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the basin of
Samakov, passing thence through a
serpentine defile into thb plateau of Sofia, where in
ancient times it formed a lake; it now forces its way through the
Balkans by the picturesque
gorge
of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks
the central chain of the Balkans near their eastern extremity and,
uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the Black Sea. The
Maritza, the ancient
Hebrus, springs from the slopes of
Musalla, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the
wide plain of Eastern Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek
Strymon) drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the
Maritza, flows into the Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov
(lowest
altitude 3050
ft.), Trn (2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia
(1640 ft.), and Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of
the western highlands.
The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost
all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed of
gneiss and crystalline
schists, and traversed by
eruptive
veins, extends over the
greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina,
Rhodope, and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it appears
only in the neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier
Palaeozoic systems are wanting, but the
Carboniferous appears in the
western Balkans with a continental
facies (Kulm). Here
anthracitiferous
coal is found in
beds of argillite and
sandstone. Red sandstone and
conglomerate,
representing the
Permian
system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these,
in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to
the upper
Jurassic, also
occurring in the central part of they range. The
Cretaceous
system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian,
appears throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the
summits of the Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the
southern declivity of the chain.
Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and
Eocene systems, is widely
distributed. The Eocene, or older
Tertiary, further appears with nummulitic
formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the
Oligocene
only near the Black Sea coast at
Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger Tertiary, the
Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven (Plevna) in
the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between
Varna and Burgas with beds of spaniodons, as in
the
Crimea; the Sarmatian
stage in the plain of the Danube and in the districts of Silistria
and Varna. A rich mammaliferous
deposit (
Hip
parson, Rhinoceros, Dinotherium, Mastodon, &c.) of this period has
been found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more
limited space. The
Quaternary era is represented by the typical
loess, which covers most of the
Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the alluvial deposits of
the riparian districts with remains of the
Ur sus, Equus,
&c., found in
bone-caverns.
Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans and Sredna Gora, as well as
in the Archean formation of the southern ranges, presenting
granite,
syenite,
diorite,
diabase,
quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite,
trachyte,
andesite,
basalt, &c.
Minerals
The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with
the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The minerals
which are commercially valuable include
gold (found in small quantities),
silver,
graphite,
galena, pyrite,
marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, bornite,
cuprite, hematite,
limonite, ochre,
chromite,
magnetite,
azurite,
manganese,
malachite,
gypsum, &c. The combustibles are
anthracitiferous coal, coal,"brown coal" and
lignite. The lignite mines opened by the
government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal
beds have been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere. Thermal springs,
mostly sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the
southern slope of the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of
Sofia and Kiustendil; maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near
Dupnitza, 180.5° (Fahrenheit), at Sofia 118.4°. Many of these are
frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to their valuable
therapeutic qualities. The mineral springs on the north of the
Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza),
cold.
Climate
The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that
of other European regions of the same
latitude is attributable in part to the number
and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the general
configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat in summer and
cold in winter, great local contrasts, and rapid transitions of
temperature occur here as in the adjoining countries. The local
contrasts are remarkable. In the districts extending from the
Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed to the bitter north wind,
the winter cold is intense, and the river, notwithstanding the
volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently frozen over; the
temperature has been known to fall to 24 below
zero. Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans
against hot southerly winds, the summer heat in this region is not
unbearable; its maximum is 99°. The high tableland of Sofia is
generally covered with snow in the winter months; it enjoys,
however, a somewhat more equable climate than the northern
district, the maximum temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the
air is bracing, and the summer nights
are cool and fresh. In the eastern districts the proximity of the
sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold; the sea is
occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to violent
north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the
7rovros e! ecvos
or "inhospitable sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation
for storms. The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a
comparatively warm climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than
elsewhere in Bulgaria, and the vegetation is that of southern
Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter is short and severe; the
spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer hot, but tempered by
thunderstorms; the autumn (
yasen, " the clear time")
magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of
December. The mean temperature is 52°. The climate is healthy,
especially in the mountainous districts. Malarial
fever prevails in the valley of the Maritza, in
the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the
upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean
annual rainfall is 25.59 in. (Gabrovo, 41.73; Sofia, 27.68; Varna,
18.50).
Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna.
Bears are still abundant in the higher mountain districts,
especially in the Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian
bear is small and of brown colour,
like that of the Carpathians. Wolves are very numerous, and in
winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns
and villages; in hard weather they have been known to approach the
outskirts of Sofia. The government offers a reward for the
destruction of both these animals. The
roe deer is found
in all the forests, the red deer is less common; the
chamois haunts the higher
regions of the Rilska Planina, Rhodope and the Balkans. The
jackal (
Canis aureus)
appears in the district of Burgas; the
lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild
boar,
otter,
fox,
badger,
hare, wild
cat,
marten,
polecat (
Foetorius
putorius; the rare
tiger
polecat,
Foetorius sarmaticus, is also found),
weasel and shrewmouse
(
Spermophilus citillus) are common. The
beaver (Bulg.
bebr) appears to have
been abundant in certain localities,
e.g. Bebrovo,
Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct.
Snakes (
Coluber natrix
and other species), vipers (
Vipera berus and
V.
ammodytes), and land and water tortoises are numerous. The
domestic animals are the same as in the other countries of
southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey
sheep-
dog leaves a
lasting impression on most travellers in the interior. Fowls,
especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of
geese may be seen in the Moslem villages. The
ornithology of Bulgaria
is especially interesting. Eagles (
Aquila imperialis and the rarer
Aquila
fulva), vultures (
Vultur monachus, Gyps fulvus, Neophron
percnopterus), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of
prey are extraordinarily abundant;
singing birds are consequently rare. The lammergeier (
Gypaetus
barbatus) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of wild swans,
geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and
the lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods
(
Tetrao urogallus) is found in the Balkan and Rhodope
forests, the wild
pheasant
in the Tunja valley, the
bustard (
Otis tarda) in the Eastern
Rumelian plain. Among the migratory birds are the
crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley,
woodcock,
snipe and
quail; the great spotted
cuckoo (
Coccystes glandarius) is an
occasional visitant. The red
starling (
Pastor roseus) sometimes
appears in large flights. The
stork, which is never molested, adds a
picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water
fish, the
sturgeon (
Acipenser sturio and
A.
huso), sterlet,
salmon
(
Salmo hucho), and
carp
are found in the Danube;
the mountain streams abound in
trout. The Black Sea supplies
turbot,
mackerel, &c.; dolphins and
flying fish may
sometimes be seen.
Flora
In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (1) the
northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the
southern plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts
adjoining the Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov
and Kiustendil, (5) the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the
Balkans and the southern mountain group. In the first-mentioned
region the vegetation resembles that of the
Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the
country is adorned with the flowers of the
crocus, orchis,
iris,
tulip and
other bulbous plants, which in summer give way to tall
grasses, umbelliferous growths,
dianthi, astragali, &c. In the more sheltered district
south of the Balkans the richer vegetation recalls that of the
neighbourhood of
Constantinople and the adjacent parts of
Asia Minor. On the
Black Sea coast many types of the Crimean, Transcaucasian and even
the Mediterranean flora present themselves. The plateaus of Sofia
and Samakov furnish specimens of sub-alpine plants, while the
vine disappears; the hollow of
Kiustendil, owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation
of the Macedonian valleys. The flora of the Balkans corresponds
with that of the Carpathians; the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in
purely indigenous types combined with those of the central European
Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The Alpine types are often
represented by variants:
e.g. the
Campanula alpina by the
Campanula
orbelica, the
Primula farinosa by the
Primula
frondosa and
P. exigua, the
Gentiana
germanica by the
Gentiana bulgarica, &c. The
southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the unexplored
highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown
elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of
the
Caucasus. Among the
more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are the following
Centaurea,
Cirsium,
Linaria, Scrophularia, Verbascum, Dianthus, Silene, Trifolium, Euphorbia, Cytisus,
Astragalus, Ornithogalum, Allium, Crocus, Iris, Thymus, Umbellifera, Sedum, Hypericum, Scabiosa, Ranunculus, Orchis,
Ophrys. Forests. - The principal forest trees are the
oak,
beech,
ash,
elm,
walnut, cornel,
poplar, pine and
juniper. The oak is universal in the thickets,
but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent forests of
beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska
Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well
wooded, but the southern slope is bare. The walnut and
chestnut are mainly confined
to eastern Rumelia. Conifers (
Pinus silvestris, Picea excelsa,
Pinus laricis, Pinus mughus) are rare in the Balkans, but
abundant in the higher regions of the southern mountain group,
where the
Pinus pence, otherwise peculiar to the
Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild
lilac forms a beautiful feature in the spring
landscape. Wild
fruit trees,
such as the
apple,
pear and
plum, are common.
.^ A protection order under the first four of these measures may be implemented for up to one year.- Bulgaria 19 January 2010 9:49 UTC www.stopvaw.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
A law passed in 1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the
right of cutting
timber, and
places the state forests under the control of inspectors. According
to official
statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of
the whole superficies of the kingdom, are under forest, but the
greater portion of this area is covered only by brushwood and
scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila district are rapidly
disappearing under exploitation.
Agriculture,
the main source of wealth to the country, is
still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance and conservatism of the peasantry,
the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the fear of
official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of
communications, want of capital, and in some districts sparsity of
population, have all tended to retard the development of this most
important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and
look with suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of
production. The plough is of a primeval type,
rotation of crops is only partially practised, and the use of
manure is almost unknown. The government has sedulously endeavoured
to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by the
establishment of agricultural schools, the appointment of itinerant
professors and inspectors, the distribution of better kinds of
seeds, improved implements, &c. Efforts have been made to
improve the breeds of native cattle and horses, and stallions have been
introduced from Hungary and
distributed throughout the country. Oxen and buffaloes are the
principal animals of draught; the buffalo, which was apparently introduced from
Asia in remote times, is much
prized by the peasants for its patience and strength; it is, however,
somewhat delicate and requires much care. In the eastern districts
camels are also employed. The Bulgarian horses are small, but
remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a rule unfitted
for draught and cavalry
purposes. The best sheep are found in the district of Karnobat in
Eastern Rumelia. The number:of goats in the country tends to
decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these animals owing
to the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price of
oxen is £5 each, draught oxen £ 12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the
pair, cows £2, horses £6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The
principal cereals are wheat, maize, rye, barley,
oats and millet. The
cultivation of maize is increasing in the Danubian and eastern
districts. Rice-fields are found
in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about
80% of the total exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of roses, silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could the peasants be
induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of wine-making the
Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European growths. The
tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in
considerable quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant
amount is exported. The best tobaccofields in Bulgaria are on the
northern slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which
produces the famous Kavala
growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo
lie in the sheltered valleys between the Balkans and the parallel
chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh. About 6000 lb of the
rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from £12 to £14 per
lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia.
Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to
disease among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive
it with promise of success. Cotton is grown in the southern
districts of Eastern Rumelia.Peasant proprietorship is
universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18 acres each. There
are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but some of
the monasteries possess considerable domains. The large
tchifiks, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish
landowners, have been divided among the peasants. The rural
proprietors enjoy the right of pasturing their cattle on the common
lands belonging to each village, and of cutting wood in the state
forests. They live in a condition of rude comfort, and poverty is
practically unknown, except in the towns. A peculiarly interesting
feature in Bulgarian agricultural life is the
zadruga, or
house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating from
prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes numbering several dozen
persons, dwell together on a
farm
in the observance of strictly communistic principles. The
association is ruled by a house-father (
domakin,
stareishina), and a house-mother (
domakinia), who
assign to the members their respective tasks. In addition to the
farm work the members often practise various trades, the proceeds
of which are paid into the general treasury. The community
sometimes includes a
priest,
whose fees for baptisms, &c.,
augment the common fund. The national aptitude
for combination is also displayed in the associations of market
gardeners (
gradinarski druzhini, taifi), who in the spring
leave their native districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens
in the neighbourhood of some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad,
returning in the autumn, when they divide the profits of the
enterprise; the number of persons annually thus engaged probably
exceeds io,000. Associations for various agricultural,
mining and industrial
undertakings and provident societies are numerous: the
handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in
esnafs or
gilds.
Manufactures
The development of manufacturing enterprise on a large scale has
been retarded by want of capital. The principal establishments for
the native manufactures of
aba and
shayak (rough and fine
homespuns), and of
gaitan (braided embroidery) are at
Sliven and Gabrovo respectively. The Bulgarian homespuns, which are
made of pure
wool, are of
admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost
exclusively to Turkey: value in 1896, £104,046; in 1898, £144,726;
in 1904, £108,685. Unfortunately the home demand for native fabrics
is diminishing owing to foreign competition; the smaller textile
industries are declining, and the picturesque, durable, and
comfortable
costume of the
country is giving way to cheap ready-made clothing imported from
Austria. The government has
endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons
in its employment to wear the native cloth, and the army is
supplied almost exclusively by the factories at Sliven. A great
number of small distilleries exist throughout the country; there
are breweries in all the principal towns, tanneries at Sevlievo,
Varna, &c., numerous
corn-mills worked by water and
steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain
torrents, in the Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign
capital has been invested in industrial enterprises; the most
notable are
sugar-refineries in
the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a
cotton-spinning mill at Varna, on which an English
company has expended about £60,000
Commerce. - The usages
of internal commerce have been considerably modified by the
development of communications. The primitive system of
barter in kind still exists in
the rural districts, but is gradually disappearing. The great fairs
(
panairi, iravn-yi)pas) held at Eski-Jumaia,
Dobritch and other towns,
which formerly attracted multitudes of foreigners as well as
natives, have lost much of their importance; a considerable amount
of business, however, is still transacted at these gatherings, of
which ninety-seven were held in 1898. The principal seats of the
export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black Sea, and
Svishtov,
Rustchuk,
Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and
Vidin on the Danube. The chief centres of
distribution for imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk, Philippopolis
and Burgas. About 10% of the exports passes over the Turkish
frontier, but the government is making great efforts to divert the
trade to Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been
carried out at both these ports. The new port of Burgas was
formally opened in 1904, that of Varna in 1906.
|
Year.
|
Exports.
|
Imports.
|
Total.
|
|
£
|
£
|
£
|
|
1899
|
2,138,684
|
2,407,123
|
4,545,807
|
|
1900
|
2,159,305
|
1,853,684
|
4,012,989
|
|
1901
|
3,310,790
|
2,801,762
|
6,112,552
|
|
1902
|
4,147,381
|
2,849,059
|
7,996,440
|
|
1903
|
4,322,945
|
3,272,103
|
7,595,048
|
|
1904
|
6,304,756
|
5,187,583
|
11,492,339
|
In °1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was £4,4
1 9,5 8 9. The following table gives the values for the six years
ending 1904. The great fluctuations in the exports are due to the
variations of the
harvest,
on which the prosperity of the country practically depends The
principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides,
cheese, eggs, attar of roses.
Exports to the
United
Kingdom in 1900 were valued at £239,665 in 1904 at £989,127.
The principal imports are textiles
metal goods, colonial goods, implements,
furniture,
leather,
petroleum. Imports from the
United Kingdom in 1900, £301,150; in 1904, £793,972.
The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of
£400,000, has its central establishment at Sofia, and branches at
Philippopolis, Rustchuk, Varna,
Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the
ordinary banking operations, it issues loans on
mortgage. Four other
banks have been founded at Sofia by groups of
foreign and native capitalists. There are several private banks in
the country. The Imperial
Ottoman Bank and the Industrial Bank of
Kiev have branches at Philippopolis
and Sofia respectively. The agricultural chests, founded by
Midhat Pasha in 1863,
and reorganized in 1894, have done much to
rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurers.
They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept
deposits at interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or
the
security of two
solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 was £569,260; in
1904, £1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted as the
"Bulgarian Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia.
The post-office savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a
capital of £1,360,560.
There are over 200 registered provident societies in the
country. The legal rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates
are not uncommon.
Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has
adopted the
metric
system. Turkish
weights and measures, however, are
still largely employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the
lee, or "
lion"(pl.
leva), nominally equal to the
franc, with its submultiple the
stotinka (pl.-ki), or centime. The coinage consists of
nickel and
bronze coins (21 f 5, 10 and 20
stotinki) and silver coins (50
stotinki; 1, 2 and
5
leva). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with pieces
corresponding to those of the
Latin Union. The Turkish
pound and foreign gold coins are also in general
circulation. The National Bank issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and
Too
leva, payable in gold. Notes payable in silver are
also issued.
Finance.-It is
only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance prior to the
declaration of independence
in 1908. At the outset of its career the principality was
practically unencumbered with any debt, external or internal. The
stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. ix.) with regard to the
payment of a
tribute to the
sultan and the assumption of an "equitable proportion" of the
Ottoman Debt were never carried into effect. In 1883 the claim of
Russia for the expenses of the
occupation (under Art. xx. of the treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625
fr. (£I,061,820) payable in annual instalments of 2,100,000 fr.
(£84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in 1885 entailed
liability for the obligations of that province consisting of an
annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (£ 18,040) and a
loan of 3,375, 000 fr. (£135,000)
contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888 the purchase of
the Varna-Rustchuk
railway
was effected by the issue of treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors.
In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr. (£T,200,000) bearing 6% interest
was contracted with the
Vienna
Landerbank and Bankverein at 852. In 1892 a further 6% loan of
142,780,000 fr. (£5,711,200) was contracted with the Landerbank at
83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a 5% loan of 106,000,000 fr. (£4,240,000),
secured on the tobacco dues and the
stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de
l'Etat de Russie and the Banque de
Paris et des Pays Bas at 812, for the purpose of
consolidating the floating debt, and in 1904 a 5% loan of
99,980,000 fr. (73,999, 20 0) at 82, with the same guarantees, was
contracted with the last-named bank mainly for the purchase of war
material in
France and the
construction of railways. In January 1906 the
national debt stood
as follows :-Outstanding amount of the consolidated loans,
363,070,500 fr. 04,522,820); internal debt, 1 5, 60 3,774 fr.
(£624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208 (776,408). In February
1907 a 42% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on the surplus
proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902 and
1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas
associated with some German and Austrian banks for the conversion
of the loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and
for railway construction and other purposes. The total external
debt was thus raised to upwards of 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern
Rumelian tribute and the
rent of
the SarambeyBelovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a
further sum of 50,919,100 fr. (£2,036,765). The national debt was
not disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue.
After the union with Eastern Rumelia the
budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 leva
0,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (£4,786,220) in 1904; the
estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (£4,476, 800), of
which 41,179,000 (£1,647,160) were derived from direct and
38,610,000 (£I,544,400) from indirect
taxation; the estimated expenditure was
111,903,281 leva(£4,476,131), the principal items being: public
debt, 31,317,346 (£I,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (£I,061,628);
education, 10,402,470 (£416,098); public works, 1 4,4 61, 1 7 1
(£57 8 ,44 6); interior, 7,559,517 (7302,380). The actual receipts
in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In 1895 direct taxation, which
pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was diminished and
indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably
increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c.,
indirect to 8 fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial
difficulties in which the country was involved at the close of the
19th century were attributable not to excessive indebtedness but to
heavy outlay on public works, the army, and education, and to the
maintenance of an unnecessary number of officials, the economic
situation being aggravated by a succession of bad harvests. The war
budget during ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large sum of
275,822,017 leva (7 11, 0 33,3 00) or 35.77% of the whole national
income within that period. In subsequent years military expenditure
continued to increase; the total during the period since the union
with Eastern Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva
(£23,980,800).
Communications.-In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria
was the Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English
company in 1867. In Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to
Philippopolis and the Turkish frontier (122 m.), with a branch to
Yamboli (66 m.), had been
built by Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government
to the Oriental Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by
the Bulgarian government in 1908 (see
History, below). The
construction of a railway from the Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to
the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel was imposed on the
principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political difficulties
intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not completed
till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized the short
connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey, and railway
communication between Constantinople and the western capitals was
established. Since that time great progress has been made in
railway construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were open
to traffic; in 18 99, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908
all these lines were worked by the state, and, with the exception
of the Belovo-Sarambey line (29 m.), which was worked under a
convention with Turkey, were its property. The completion of the
important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen (November 1899) opened up the
rich agricultural district between the Balkans and the Danube and
connected Varna with the capital. Branches to Samovit and Rustchuk
establish connexion with the Rumanian railway system on the
opposite side of the river. It was hoped, with the consent of the
Turkish government, to extend the line Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to
Uskub, and thus to secure a
direct route to
Salonica
and the Aegean. Road communication is still in an unsatisfactory
condition. Roads are divided into three classes: ` state roads,"or
main highways, maintained by the government;" district roads
"maintained by the district councils; and" intervillage roads
"(
mezhduselski shosseta), maintained by the communes.
Repairs are effected by the
corvee system with requisitions of material. There are no
canals, and inland navigation is confined to the Danube. The
Austrian Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft and the Russian
Gagarine steamship company compete for the river traffic;
the
grain trade is
largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The
coasting trade on the Black
Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; the steamers of
the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at Varna, and
occasionally at Burgas.
The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been
rapid. In 1886,1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 2 9, 06 3,
043. Receipts of posts and telegraphs in 1886 were £40,975, in 1903
£ 1 34,94 2. In 1903 there were 3261 m. of
telegraph lines and 531 m. of telephones.
Towns.-The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the
capital (Bulgarian
Sredetz, a name now little used), pop.
in January 1906, 82,187; Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern
Rumelia (Bulg.
Plovdiv), pop. 45,572; Varna, 37,155;
Rustchuk (
Bulg. 33,552; Sliver', 25,049;
Shumla (Bulg.
Shumen),
22,290;
Plevna (Bulg.
Pleven), 21,208;
Stara-Zagora, 20,647;
Tatar-Pazarjik,
17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek
Hyampolis), 15,708;
Dobritch (Turkish
Hajiolu-Pazarjik), 15,369; Haskovo,
15,061;
Vratza, 14,832;
Stanimaka (Greek
Stenimachos), 14,120;
Razgrad, 13,783;
Sistova (Bulg.
Svishtov), 13,408;
Burgas, 12,846; Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital,
12,171. All these are described in separate articles.
Population.-The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq.
m.; of Eastern Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240
sq. m. According to the
census
of the 12th of January 1906, the population of northern Bulgaria
was 2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united Bulgaria,
4,028,239 or 88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between
Rumania and
Portugal in regard to area; between the
Netherlands and
Switzerland in regard
to population: in
density of
population it may be compared with
Spain and
Greece.
The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave
the total population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population
was 3,310,713; in January 1901, 3,744,283.
|
Year.
|
Marria es.
g
|
Births
(living).
|
Still-
born.
|
Deaths.
|
Natural
Increase.'
|
|
1882
|
19,795
|
74,642
|
300
|
38,884
|
35,758
|
|
1887
|
20,089
|
83,179
|
144
|
39,396
|
43,783
|
|
1892
|
27,553
|
117,883
|
321
|
103,550
|
14,333
|
|
1897
|
29,227
|
149,631
|
858
|
90,134
|
59,497
|
|
1902
|
36,041
|
149,542
|
823
|
91,093
|
58,449
|
The movement of the population at intervals of five years has
been as follows: The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the
five years 1882-1886 the mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in
1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, 27.0; in 1897-1902, 23.92.
Infant mortality is high,
especially among the peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely
survive, the adult population is in general robust, hardy and
longlived. The census of January 1901 gives 2719 persons of Too
years and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry before the age of
twentyfive, girls before eighteen. The number of illegitimate
births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of the total. The
population according to
sex in 1901
is given as 1,909,567 males and 1,834,716 females, or 51 males to
49 females. A somewhat similar disparity may be observed in the
other countries of the Peninsula. Classified according to
occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74.85% of the population, are
engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive industries;
118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise of liberal
professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population according to
race cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is
approximately shown by the census of 1901, which gives the various
nationalities according to language as follows :-Bulgars,
2,888,219; Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063; Greeks, 66,635;
Gipsies (Tziganes), 8 9,549;
Jews (Spanish speaking), 33,661;
Tatars, ' Excess of births over
deaths.
18,884; Armenians, 14,581; other nationalities, 30,451. The
Bulgarian inhabitants of the Peninsula beyond the limits of the
principality may, perhaps, be estimated at 1,500,000 or 1,600,000,
and the grand total of the race possibly reaches 5,500,000.
The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the inhabitants of the
kingdom, are found in their purest type in the mountain districts,
the Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization having introduced
a mixed population into the plains.
The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish
invasion resulted in the extirpation or flight of a large
proportion of the Bulgarian inhabitants of the lowlands, who were
replaced by Turkish colonists. The mountainous districts, however,
retained their original population and sheltered large numbers of
the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies during the wars
with Austria,
Poland and
Russia led to further Bulgarian emigrations. The flight to the
Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians
still remain, took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th
century the majority of the population of the Eastern Rumelian
plain was Turkish. The Turkish
colony, however, declined, partly in consequence
of the drain caused by military service, while the Bulgarian
remnant increased, notwithstanding a considerable
emigration to
Bessarabia before and
after the
Russo-Turkish campaign of 1828.
Efforts were made by the Porte to strengthen the Moslem element by
planting colonies of Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The
advance of the Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus
of the Turkish population, of which only a small proportion
returned to
settle
permanently. The emigration continued after the conclusion of
peace, and is still in progress, notwithstanding the efforts of the
Bulgarian government to
arrest
it. In twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish peasants
left Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains
unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians
from Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the
Dobrudja took place within the same period, and the inhabitants of
the mountain villages show a tendency to migrate into the richer
districts of the plains.
The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena
are inhabited almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia
the national element is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope.
Possibly the most genuine representatives of the race are the
Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose conversion to
Islam preserved their women from
the
licence of the Turkish
conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope and certain
districts in the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and Plevna.
Retaining their Bulgarian speech and many ancient national usages,
they may be compared with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and
Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the principality are estimated at
26,000, but their numbers are declining. In the north-eastern
district between the Yantra and the Black Sea the Bulgarian race is
as yet thinly represented; most of the inhabitants are Turks, a
quiet, submissive, agricultural population, which unfortunately
shows a tendency to emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a
variety of races. The Greek element is strong in the maritime
towns, and displays its natural aptitude for navigation and
commerce. The Gagauzi, a peculiar race of Turkish-speaking
Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Emine to Cape Kaliakra:
they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient Kumani.
The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed
population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the
principal Greek colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and
Philippopolis. The origin of the peculiar
Shop tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of
Sofia, Breznik and Radomir is a
mystery. The Shops are conceivably a remnant of
the aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home
during the Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much
tenacity to their distinctive customs,
apparel and
dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman colony
in the Danubian districts dates from the 18th century, when large
numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish soil from
the tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department of Vidin alone
contains 36 Ruman villages with a population of 3 0 ,55 0.
Especially interesting is the race of
nomad shepherds from the Macedonian and the
Aegean coast who come in thousands every summer to pasture their
flocks on the Bulgarian mountains; they are divided into two tribes
- the Kutzovlachs, or" lame
Vlachs,"who speak Rumanian, and the Hellenized
Karakatchans or" black shepherds "(compare the Morlachs, or
Mavro-vlachs, µaiipoe Ake, of
Dalmatia), who speak Greek. The Tatars, a
peaceable, industrious race, are chiefly found in the neighbourhood
of Varna and Silistria; they were introduced as colonists by the
Turkish government in 1861. They may be reckoned at 12,000. The
gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers throughout the
country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are for the
most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They
live in the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the
villages, and are treated as outcasts by the rest of the
population. The Bulgarians, being of mixed origin, possess few
salient physical characteristics. The Slavonic type is far less
pronounced than among the kindred races; the Ugrian or Finnish cast
of features occasionally asserts itself in the central Balkans. The
face is generally
oval, the
nose straight, the
jaw somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather
below middle height, compactly built, and, among the peasantry,
very muscular; the women are generally deficient in beauty and
rapidly grow old. The upper class, the so-called
intelligenzia, is physically very inferior to the rural
population.
National Character
The character of the Bulgarians presents a singular contrast to
that of the neighbouring nations. Less
quick-witted than the Greeks, less prone to
idealism than the Servians,
less apt to assimilate the externals of civilization than the
Rumanians, they possess in a remarkable degree the qualities of
patience, perseverance and endurance, with the capacity for
laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race. The tenacity and
determination with which they pursue their national aims may
eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant competitors
in the struggle for
hegemony in the Peninsula. Unlike most
southern races, the Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn, phlegmatic,
unresponsive, and extremely suspicious of foreigners. The peasants
are industrious, peaceable and orderly; the
vendetta, as it exists in
Albania,
Montenegro and Macedonia,
and the use of the
knife in
quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are alike unknown. The
tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been invaded by the
intrigues of political
agitators, and bloodshed is not uncommon at
elections. All classes practise
thrift bordering on parsimony, and any display
of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual morality is
high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is an
object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with
death. Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the
case in most primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but
usually take place with the consent of the parents on both sides,
in order to avoid the expense of a regular
wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and
holidays is the
chor5 (XopOr), which is danced on the
village green to the strains of the
gaida or bagpipe, and
the
gissla, a rudimentary
fiddle. The Bulgarians are religious in a simple
way, but not fanatical, and the influence of the priesthood is
limited. Many ancient superstitions linger among the peasantry,
such as the belief in the
vampire and the
evil eye; witches and necromancers are
numerous and are much consulted.
Government
Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by Art. iii. of the
Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family of a prince"
freely elected by the population and confirmed by
the Sublime
Porte with the assent of the powers."According to the
constitution of Trnovo, voted by the Assembly of Notables on the
29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand Sobranye on the 27th of
May 1893, and modified by the
proclamation of a Bulgarian kingdom on the
5th of October 1908, the royal dignity descends in the direct male
line. The king must profess the Orthodox faith, only the first
elected sovereign and his immediate heir being released from this
obligation. The
legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with the Iv.
25 a national assembly; he is supreme head of the army, supervises
the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign
relations. In case of a minority or an
interregnum, a regency of three persons is
appointed. The national representation is embodied in the Sobranye,
or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian,
Subranie, the Russian
form
Sobranye being usually employed by foreign writers),
and the Grand Sobranye, which is convoked in extraordinary
circumstances. The Sobranye is elected by manhood
suffrage, in the proportion
of i to 20,000 of the population, for a term of five years. Every
Bulgarian
citizen who can
read and write and has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as
a deputy. Annual sessions are held from the 27th of October to the
2
7th of December. All legislative and financial measures
must first be discussed and voted by the Sobranye and then
sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The government is
responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether deputies or
not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is elected in
the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked to
elect a new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the
constitution, or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the
kingdom. The executive is entrusted to a cabinet of eight members -
the ministers of foreign affairs and religion, finance, justice,
public works, the interior, commerce and agriculture, education and
war. Local administration, which is organized on the Belgian model,
is under the control of the minister of the interior. The country
is divided into twenty-two departments (
okri g, pl.
okruzi), each administered by a
prefect (
upravitel), assisted by a
departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures
(
okolia), each under a sub-prefect (
okoliiski
natchdlnik). The number of these functionaries is excessive.
The four principal towns have each in addition a prefect of
police (
gradonatchalnik)
and one or more commissaries (
pristav). The gendarmery
numbers about 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the inhabitants. The
prefects and sub-prefects have replaced the Turkish
mutessarifs and
kaimakams; but the system of
municipal government, left untouched by the Turks, descends from
primitive times. Every
commune (
obshtina), urban or rural,
has its
kmet, or
mayor,
and council; the commune is bound to maintain its primary schools,
a public library or
reading-room, &c.; the kmet possesses
certain magisterial powers, and in the rural districts he collects
the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a separate commune, but
occasionally two or more villages are grouped together.
Justice
The civil and penal codes are, for the most part, based on .the
Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion of the Turkish
empire, the privileges of the
capitulations were guaranteed to foreign
subjects (Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest civil and criminal
court is that of the village kmet, whose jurisdiction is confined
to the limits of the commune; no corresponding tribunal exists in
the towns. Each sub-prefecture and town has a
justice
of the peace - in some cases two or more; the number of these
officials is 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court
of first instance, which is competent to pronounce sentences of
death, penal
servitude
and deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal cases the
judges are aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an annually
prepared
panel of forty-eight
persons. Three courts of appeal sit respectively at Sofia, Rustchuk
and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is the court of cassation,
sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two vice-presidents
and nine judges. There is also a high court of
audit (
vrkhovna smetna palata), similar
to the French
tour des comptes. The judges are poorly paid
and are removable by the government. In regard to questions of
marriage,
divorce and
inheritance the Greek,
Mahommedan and Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual
jurisdiction.
Army and Navy.
The organization of the military forces of the principality was
undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of six years
(1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In Eastern
Rumelia during the same period the"
militia "was instructed by foreign officers;
after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present
organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. The
army consists of: (1) the active or field army (
deistvuyushta
armia), divided into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active
army reserve; (2) the reserve army (
reservna armia); (3)
the
opltchenie or militia; the two former may operate
outside the kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for
purposes of defence. In time of peace the active army (i.) alone is
on a permanent footing.
The peace strength in 1905. was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and
8000 horses, the active army being composed of 9 divisions of
infantry, each of 4
regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons
attached to the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of
artillery each of 3 groups
of 3 batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each
of 3 batteries, and 3 battalions of
siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers with i
railway and
balloon section
and i bridging section. At the same date the army was locally
distributed in nine divisional areas with headquarters at Sofia,
Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, Vratza, Plevna,
Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being subdivided
into four districts, from each of which one regiment of four
battalions was recruited and completed with reservists. In case of
mobilization each of the nine areas would furnish 20,106 men (i
6,000 infantry, 1 200 artillery, 1000 engineers, 300 divisional
cavalry and 1606 transport and
hospital services, &c.). The war strength
thus amounted to 180,954 of the active army and its reserve,
exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36
districts each furnished 3 battalions of the reserve army and one
battalion of oplfchenie,
or 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000 men)
and the reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry,
&c. (about io,000), would bring the grand total in time of war
to about 338,000 officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of
the reserve battalions are drafted into the active army as occasion
requires, but the militia serves as a separate force. Military
service is obligatory, but Moslems may claim exemption on payment
of X20; the age of recruitment in time of peace is nineteen, in
time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the
infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or
three years in the other corps and six years in the active reserve;
he is then liable to
seven years' service in the reserve
army and finally passes into the opltchenie. The Bulgarian peasant
makes an admirable soldier - courageous, obedient, persevering, and
inured to hardship; the officers are painstaking and devoted to
their duties. The active army and reserve, with the exception of
the engineer regiments, are furnished with the. 315" Mannlicher
magazine
rifle, the engineer and
militia with the Berdan; the artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of
8.7and 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field) and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12
cm. Krupp and 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider) howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp
and 12 cm. Creuzot siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot quick-firing
guns; total of all description, 1154. Defensive works were
constructed at various strategical points near the frontier and
elsewhere, and at Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a
flotilla stationed at Rustchuk and Varna, where a canal connects
Lake Devno with the sea. It was composed in 1905 of 1 prince's
yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3
torpedo boats and io other small vessels, with
a
complement of 107
officers and 1231 men.
Religion
The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims to be an
indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and asserts
historic continuity with the
autocephalous Bulgarian church of the
middle ages. It was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek
patriarch of Constantinople
in 1872, although differing in no point of doctrine from the Greek
Church. The
Exarch, or supreme
head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at Constantinople; he enjoys
the title of "Beatitude" (
negovo Blazhenstvo), receives an
annual subvention of about L6000 from the kingdom, and exercises
jurisdiction over the Bulgarian
hierarchy in all parts of the Ottoman empire.
The exarch is elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy
Synod, and a general assembly
(
obshti sbor), in which the laity is represented; their
choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian independence, was
subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the dignity is
titular
metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The
organization of the church within the principality was regulated by
statute in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the
country, each administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan
council; one diocese has also a
suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy
Synod, consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a
year. The laity take part in the election of metropolitans and
parish priests, only the "black clergy," or
monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All
ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the
government. There are 2106 parishes (
eporii) in the
kingdom with 9 archimandrites, 1 93 6 parish priests and 21
deacons, 78 monasteries with 184 monks, and 12 convents with 346
nuns. The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast estate in
the Rilska Planina; its
abbot or
hegumen owns no spiritual superior but the exarch.
Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the minister of
public worship; the clergy of all denominations are paid by the
state, being free, however, to accept fees for baptisms, marriages,
burials, the administering of oaths, &c. The census of January
1901 gives 3,019,999 persons of the Orthodox faith (including
66,635 Patriarchist Greeks), 643,300 Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews,
28,56 9 Catholics, 13,809 Gregorian Armenians, 4524 Protestants and
419 whose religion is not stated. The Greek Orthodox community has
four metropolitans dependent on the patriarchate. The Mahommedan
community is rapidly diminishing; it is organized under 16 muftis
who with their assistants receive a subvention from the government.
The Catholics, who have two
bishops, are for the most part the descendants
of the medieval
Paulicians; they are especially numerous in
the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians have
one bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857
Bulgaria has been a special field of activity for American
Methodist missionaries, who have established an important school at
Samakov. The Berlin Treaty (Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities
in regard to the enjoyment of civil and political rights, and
guaranteed the free exercise of all religions.
Education
No educational system existed in many of the rural districts
before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the older
generation remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools
were under the superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was
the language of instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened
at Gabrovo in 18 3 5 by the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski.
After the
Crimean
War, Bulgarian schools began to appear in the villages of the
Balkans and the south-eastern districts. The children of the
wealthier class were generally educated abroad. The American
institution of Robert College on the
Bosporus rendered an invaluable service to the
newly created state by providing it with a number of welleducated
young men fitted for positions of responsibility. In 1878, after
the liberation of the country, there were 1658 schools in the towns
and villages. Primary education was declared obligatory from the
first, but the scarcity of properly qualified teachers and the lack
of all requisites proved serious impediments to educational
organization. The government has made great efforts and incurred
heavy expenditure for the spread of education; the satisfactory
results obtained are largely due to the keen desire for learning
which exists among the people. The present educational system dates
from 1891. Almost all the villages now possess "national"
(
narodni) primary schools, maintained by the communes with
the aid of a state subvention and supervised by departmental and
district inspectors. The state also assists a large number of
Turkish primary schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not
very rigidly enforced, and it has been found necessary to close the
schools in the rural districts during the summer, the children
being required for labour in the fields.
The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890,
47.01% of the boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary
schools; in 1898, 85% of the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904
there were 4344 primary schools, of which 3060 were "national," or
communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish, Greek, Jewish,
&c.), attended by 340,668 pupils, representing a proportion of
9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40
infant schools
for children of 3 to 6 years of age were attended by 2707 pupils.
In 1888 only 327,766 persons, or
II % of the
population, were literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19.88%;
in 1901 to 2 3.9%.
In the system of secondary education the distinction between the
classical and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in
most European countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools
and 18 gymnasia (to for boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these
there are 6 technical and 3 agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, I
theological, I commercial, I of forestry, I of design, I for
surgeons' assistants, and a large military school at Sofia.
Government aid is given to students of limited means, both for
secondary education and the completion of their studies abroad. The
university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high school," was
reorganized in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology,
mathematics and law),
and possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number
of students in 1905 was 943.
Political History The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which
inhabited the district between the Danube and the Aegean was
expelled, or more probably absorbed, by the great Slavonic
immigration which took
place at various intervals between the end of the 3rd century after
Christ and the beginning of
the 6th. The numerous tumuli which are found in all parts of the
country (see
Herodotus
v. 8) and some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as monuments
of the aboriginal population; and certain structural peculiarities,
which are common to the Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, may
conceivably be traced to the influence of the primitive Illyrian
speech, now probably represented by the Albanian. The Sla y s, an
agricultural people, were governed, even in those remote times, by
the democratic local institutions to which they are still attached;
they possessed no national leaders or central organization, and
their only political unit was the
pleme, or tribe. They
were considerably influenced by contact with Roman civilization. It
was reserved for a foreign race, altogether distinct in origin,
religion and customs, to give unity and coherence to the scattered
Slavonic groups, and to weld them into a compact and powerful state
which for some centuries played an important part in the history of
eastern Europe and threatened the existence of the Byzantine
empire.
The Bulgars
The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the Tatars,
Huns,
Avars,
Petchenegs and Finns,
made their appearance on the banks of the Pruth in the latter part
of the 7th century. They were a
horde of wild horsemen, fierce and barbarous,
practising
polygamy, and
governed despotically by their
khans (chiefs) and
boyars or
bolyars (nobles). Their original
abode was the tract between the
Ural mountains
and the
Volga, where the kingdom
of Great (or Black) Bolgary existed down to the 13th century. In 67
9, under their
khan Asparukh (or
Isperikh), they crossed the Danube, and, after subjugating the
Slavonic population of
Moesia,
advanced to the gates of Constantinople and Salonica. The East
Roman emperors were compelled to cede to them the province of
Moesia and to pay them an annual tribute. The invading horde was
not numerous, and during the next two centuries it became gradually
merged in the Slavonic population. Like the
Franks in
Gaul
the Bulgars gave their name and a political organization to the
more civilized race which they conquered, but adopted its language,
customs and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or
Finnish element is to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This
complete assimilation of a conquering race may be illustrated by
many
parallels.
Early Dynasties
The history of the early Bulgarian dynasties is little else than
a record of continuous conflicts with the Byzantine emperors. The
tribute first imposed on the Greeks by Asparukh was again exacted
by Kardam (791-797) and Krum (802-815), a sovereign noted alike for
his
cruelty and his military
and political capacity. Under his rule the Bulgarian
realm extended from the Carpathians
to the neighbourhood of Adrianople; Serdica (the present Sofia) was
taken, and the valley of the Struma conquered. Preslav, the
Bulgarian capital, was attacked and burned by the
emperor Nicephorus, but the Greek army on its return
was annihilated in one of the Balkan passes; the emperor was slain,
and his
skull was converted by
Krum into a
goblet. The reign
of Boris (852-884) is memorable for the introduction of
Christianity into
Bulgaria. Two monks of Salonica, SS.
Cyril and
Methodius, are generally reverenced as the
national apostles; the scene of their labours, however, was among
the Sla y s of
Moravia, and
the Bulgars were evangelized by their disciples. Boris, finding
himself surrounded by Christian states, decided from political
motives to abandon paganism. He was baptized in 864, the emperor
Michael III. acting as
his
sponsor. It was at this
time that the controversies broke out which ended in the
schism between the Churches of
the East and West. Boris long wavered between Constantinople and
Rome, but the refusal of the
pope to recognize an autocephalous
Bulgarian church determined him to offer his
allegiance to the Greek patriarch. The
decision was fraught with momentous consequences for the future of
the race. The nation altered its religion in obedience to its
sovereign, and some of the boyars who resisted the change paid with
their lives for their fidelity to the ancient belief. The
independence of the Bulgarian church was recognized by the
patriarchate, a fact much dwelt upon in recent controversies. The
Bulgarian
primates
subsequently received the title of patriarch; their see was
transferred from Preslav to Sofia, Voden and Prespa successively,
and finally to
Ochrida.
The First Empire
The national power reached its
zenith under
Simeon (893-927), a monarch
distinguished in the arts of war and peace. In his reign, says
Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank
among the civilized powers of the earth." His dominions extended
from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, and from the borders of
Thessaly to the Save and the
Carpathians. Having become the most powerful monarch in eastern
Europe, Simeon assumed the
style
of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and Greeks" (
tsar i samodrzhetz vsem Blgarom i
Grkom), a title which was recognized by Pope
Formosus. During the latter
years of his reign, which were spent in peace, his people made
great progress in civilization, literature flourished, and Preslav,
according to contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople in
magnificence. After the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power
declined owing to internal dissensions; the land was distracted by
the Bogomil
heresy (see
BoG0MILS), and a separate or western empire, including Albania and
Macedonia, was founded at Ochrida by Shishman, a
boyar from Trnovo. A notable event took place in
967, when the Russians, under Sviatoslav, made their first
appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, Boris II., with the aid
of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the invaders, but the Greeks
took advantage of their victory to dethrone Boris, and the first
Bulgarian empire thus came to an end after an existence of three
centuries. The empire at Ochrida, however, rose to considerable
importance under
Samuel, the
son of Shishman (976-1(314), who conquered the greater part of the
Peninsula, and ruled from the Danube to the Morea. After a series
of campaigns this redoubtable warrior was defeated at Belasitza by
the emperor
Basil II.,
surnamed Bulgaroktonos, who put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners
taken in the fight, and sent them into the camp of his adversary.
The Bulgarian tsar was so overpowered by the spectacle that he died
of grief. A few years later his dynasty finally disappeared, and
for more than a century and a half (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race
remained subject to the Byzantine emperors.
The Second Empire
In 1186, after a general insurrection of Vlachs and Bulgars
under the brothers Ivan and
Peter Asen of Trnovo, who claimed descent from
the dynasty of the Shishmanovtzi, the nation recovered its
independence, and Ivan Asen assumed the title of "Tsar of the
Bulgars and Greeks." The seat of the second, or "Bulgaro-Vlach"
empire was at Trnovo, which the Bulgarians regard as the historic
capital of their race. Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs,
extended his dominions to
Belgrade,
Nish and Skopie (Uskub); he acknowledged the
spiritual supremacy of the pope, and received the royal
crown from a papal
legate. The greatest of all
Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241), a man of humane and
enlightened character. After a series of victorious campaigns he
established his sway over Albania,
Epirus, Macedonia and
Thrace, and governed his wide dominions with
justice, wisdom and moderation. In his time the nation attained a
prosperity hitherto unknown: commerce, the arts and literature
flourished; Trnovo, the capital, was enlarged and embellished, and
great numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or endowed.
The dynasty of the Asens became extinct in 1257, and a period of
decadence began. Two other dynasties, both of Kuman origin,
followed - the Terterovtzi, who ruled at Trnovo, and the
Shishmanovtzi, who founded an independent state at Vidin, but
afterwards reigned in the national capital. Eventually, on the 28th
June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in Bulgaria, Tsar Michael
Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians, under Stephen
Urosh III., at the battle of Velbiizhd (Kiustendil). Bulgaria,
though still retaining its native rulers, now became subject to
Servia, and formed part of the short-lived empire of Stephen Dushan
(1331-1355). The Servian hegemony vanished after the death of
Dushan, and the Christian races of the Peninsula, distracted by the
quarrels of their petty princes, fell an easy prey to the advancing
might of the Moslem invader.
The Turkish Conquest.
In 1340 the Turks had begun to ravage the valley of the Maritza;
in 1362 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1382 Sofia. In 1366
Ivan Shishman III., the last Bulgarian tsar, was compelled to
declare himself the
vassal of
the sultan
Murad I., and to
send his sister to the
harem of
the conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the Servians, Bosnians and
Croats on the famous field of
Kossovo decided the fate of the Peninsula.
Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by the Turks; and
Trnovo, after a siege of three months, was captured, sacked and
burnt in 1393. The fate of the last Bulgarian sovereign is unknown:
the national legend represents him as perishing in a battle near
Samakov. Vidin, where Ivan's brother, Strazhimir, had established
himself, was taken in 1396, and with its fall the last remnant of
Bulgarian independence disappeared.
The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch
in Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and
sword through the land; towns,
villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole
districts were converted into desolate wastes. The inhabitants of
the plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new
settlements. Many of the nobles embraced the creed of Islam, and
were liberally rewarded for their
apostasy; others, together with numbers of the
priests and people, took refuge across the Danube. All the regions
formerly ruled by the Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and
Thrace, were placed under the administration of a governor-general,
styled the beylerbey of
Rum-
ili, residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper
was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia, Nikopolis, Vidin, Silistria
and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of the people followed the
example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity; the conversion of
the isolated communities now represented by the Pomaks took place
at various intervals during the next three centuries. A new kind of
feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or
spahiliks were conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and the
renegade Bulgarian nobles. The Christian population was subjected
to heavy imposts, the principal being the
haratch, or
capitation-tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the tithe on
agricultural produce, which was collected by the feudal lord. Among
the most cruel forms of oppression was the requisitioning of young
boys between the ages of ten and twelve, who were sent to
Constantinople as recruits for the corps of
janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors
which attended the Ottoman conquest, the condition of the peasantry
during the first three centuries of Turkish government was scarcely
worse than it had been under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. The
contemptuous indifference with which the Turks regarded the
Christian
rayas was not altogether to the disadvantage of
the subject race. Military service was not exacted from the
Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either
their religion or their language, and within certain limits they
were allowed to retain their ancient local administration and the
jurisdiction of their clergy in regard to inheritances and family
affairs. At the time of the conquest certain towns and villages,
known as the
voinitchki sela, obtained important
privileges which were not infringed till the 18th century; on
condition of furnishing contingents to the Turkish army or grooms
for the sultan's horses they obtained exemption from most of the
taxes and complete self-government under their
voavodi or
chiefs. Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the Sredna Gora,
attained great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since the
establishment of the principality. While the Ottoman power was at
its height the lot of the subject-races was far less intolerable
than during the period of decadence, which began with the
unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683. Their rights and privileges
were respected, the law was enforced, commerce prospered, good
roads were constructed, and the great caravans of the Ragusan
merchants traversed the country. Down to the end of the 18th
century there appears to have been only one serious attempt at
revolt - that occasioned by the advance of Prince
Sigismund
Bathory into
Walachia
in 1595 A kind of guerilla warfare was, however, maintained in the
mountains by the
haiduti, or outlaws, whose exploits, like
those of the Greek
klephts, have been highly idealized in
the popular folk-
lore. As the
power of the sultans declined anarchy spread through the Peninsula.
In the earlier decades of the 18th century the Bulgarians suffered
terribly from the ravages of the Turkish armies passing through the
land during the wars with Austria. Towards its close their
condition became even worse owing to the horrors perpetrated by the
Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and desperadoes, who, in
defiance of the Turkish
authorities, roamed through the country, supporting themselves by
plunder and committing every
conceivable atrocity. After the peace of Belgrade (1737), by which
Austria lost her conquests in the Peninsula, the Servians and
Bulgarians began to look to Russia for deliverance, their hopes
being encouraged by the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (1774), which
foreshadowed the claim of Russia to protect the Orthodox Christians
in the Turkish empire. In 1794 Pasvanoglu, one of the chiefs of the
Krjalis, established himself as an independent sovereign at Vidin,
putting to flight three large Turkish armies which were despatched
against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable qualities.
He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order, levied
taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The memoirs
of Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture of the
condition of Bulgaria at this time. "My diocese," he writes, "was
laid desolate; the villages disappeared - they had been burnt by
the Krjalis and Pasvan's brigands; the inhabitants were scattered
far and wide over Walachia and other lands."
The National
Revival. - At the beginning of the 19th century the existence
of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe, even to
students of Slavonic literature. Disheartened by ages of
oppression, isolated from Christendom by their geographical
position, and cowed by the proximity of Constantinople, the
Bulgarians took no collective part in the insurrectionary movement
which resulted in the liberation of Servia and Greece. The Russian
invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to their sufferings, and
great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Bessarabia, annexed by
Russia under the treaty of
Bucharest. But the long-dormant national
spirit now began to awake under the influence of a literary
revival. The precursors of the movement were Paisii, a
monk of Mount
Athos, who wrote a history of the Bulgarian tsars
and saints (1762), and Bishop Sofronii, whose memoirs have been
already mentioned. After 1824 several works written in modern
Bulgarian began to appear, but the most important step was the
foundation, in 1835, of the first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo.
Within ten years at least 53 Bulgarian schools came into existence,
and five Bulgarian
printing-presses' were at work. The literary
movement led the way to a reaction against the influence and
authority of the Greek clergy. The spiritual domination of the
Greek patriarchate had tended more effectually than the temporal
power of the Turks to the effacement of Bulgarian
nationality. After the
conquest of the Peninsula the Greek patriarch became the
representative at the Sublime Porte of the
Rum-millet, the
Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities were
comprised. The independent patriarchate of Trnovo was suppressed;
that of Ochrida was subsequently Hellenized. The Phanariot clergy -
unscrupulous, rapacious and corrupt - succeeded in monopolizing the
higher ecclesiastical appointments and filled the parishes with
Greek priests, whose schools, in which Greek was exclusively
taught, were the only means of instruction open to the population.
By degrees Greek became the language of the upper classes in all
the Bulgarian towns, the Bulgarian language was written in Greek
characters, and the illiterate peasants, though speaking the
vernacular, called
themselves Greeks. The Slavonic
liturgy was suppressed in favour of the Greek,
and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts, images,
testaments and missals were committed to the flames. The patriots
of the literary movement, recognizing in the patriarchate the most
determined foe to a national revival, directed all their efforts to
the abolition of Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy and the
restoration of the Bulgarian autonomous church. Some of the leaders
went so far as to open negotiations with Rome, and an
archbishop of the Uniate
Bulgarian church was nominated by the pope. The struggle was
prosecuted with the utmost tenacity for forty years. Incessant
protests and memorials were addressed to the Porte, and every
effort was made to undermine the position of the Greek bishops,
some of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the same time
no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate the
national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements were
attempted by the patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff, Haji Dimitr,
Stephen Karaja and others, but received little support from the
mass of the people. The recognition of Bulgarian nationality was
won by the pen, not the sword. The patriarchate at length found it
necessary to offer some concessions, but these appeared illusory to
the Bulgarians, and long and acrimonious discussions followed.
Eventually the Turkish government intervened, and on the 28th of
February 1870 a
firman was
issued establishing the Bulgarian exarchate, with jurisdiction over
fifteen dioceses, including Nish, Pirot and Veles; the other
dioceses in dispute were to be added to these in case two-thirds of
the Christian population so desired. The election of the first
exarch was delayed till February 1872, owing to the opposition of
the patriarch, who immediately afterwards excommunicated the new
head of the Bulgarian church and all his followers. The official
recognition now acquired tended to consolidate the Bulgarian nation
and to prepare it for the political developments which were soon to
follow. A great educational activity at once displayed itself in
all the districts subjected to the new ecclesiastical power.
The Revolt of 1876. - Under the enlightened
administration of Midhat
Pasha
(1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative prosperity, but that
remarkable man is not remembered with gratitude by the people owing
to the severity with which he repressed insurrectionary movements.
In 1861, 12,000 Crimean Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number
of Circassians from the Caucasus, were settled by the Turkish
government on lands taken without
compensation from the Bulgarian peasants.
The Circassians, a lawless race of mountaineers, proved a veritable
scourge to the population in
their neighbourhood. In 1875 the insurrection in
Bosnia and Herzegovina produced
immense excitement throughout the Peninsula. The fanaticism of the
Moslems was aroused, and the Bulgarians, fearing a general
massacre of Christians,
endeavoured to anticipate the blow by organizing a general revolt.
The rising, which broke out prematurely at Koprivshtitza and
Panagurishte in May 1876, was mainly confined to the sanjak of
Philippopolis. Bands of bashi-bazouks were let loose throughout the
district by the Turkish authorities, the Pomaks, or Moslem
Bulgarians, and the Circassian colonists were called to arms, and a
succession of horrors followed to which a parallel can scarcely be
found in the history of the middle ages. The principal scenes of
massacre were Panagurishte, Perushtitza, Bratzigovo and Batak; at
the last-named town, according to an official British report, 5000
men, women and children were put to the sword by the Pomaks under
Achmet
Aga, who was decorated by the
sultan for this exploit. Altogether some 15,000 persons were
massacred in the district of Philippopolis, and fifty-eight
villages and five monasteries were destroyed. Isolated risings
which took place on the northern side of the Balkans were crushed
with similar barbarity. These atrocities, which were first made
known by an English journalist and an American consular official,
were denounced by
Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which
aroused the indignation of Europe. The great powers remained
inactive, but Servia declared war in the following month, and her
army was joined by 2000 Bulgarian
volunteers. A conference of the
representatives of the powers, held at Constantinople towards the
end of the year, proposed, among other reforms, the organization of
the Bulgarian provinces, including the greater part of Macedonia,
in two vilayets under Christian governors, with popular
representation. These recommendations were practically set aside by
the Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war (see Russo-Turkish
Wars, and
Plevna). In the
campaign which followed the Bulgarian volunteer contingent in the
Russian army played an
honourable part; it accompanied Gourko's
advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery at Stara
Zagora, where it lost heavily, and rendered valuable services in
the defence of Shipka.
Treaties of San
Stefano and Berlin
The victorious advance of the Russian army to Constantinople was
followed by the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), which
realized almost to the full the national aspirations of the
Bulgarian race. All the provinces of European Turkey in which the
Bulgarian element predominated were now included in an autonomous
principality, which extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian
mountains, and from the Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida,
the ancient capital of the Shishmans,
Dibra and
Kastoria, as well as the districts of Vranya
and Pirot, and possessing a Mediterranean port at Kavala. The
Dobrudja, notwithstanding its Bulgarian population, was not
included in the new state, being reserved as compensation to
Rumania for the Russian
annexation of Bessarabia; Adrianople,
Salonica and the Chalcidian peninsula were left to Turkey. The area
thus delimited constituted three-fifths of the Balkan Peninsula,
with a population of 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers,
however, anticipating that this extensive territory would become a
Russian dependency, intervened; and on the 13th of July of the same
year was signed the
treaty of Berlin, which
in effect divided the "Big Bulgaria" of the treaty of San Stefano
into three portions. The limits of the principality of Bulgaria, as
then defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, have
been already described; the remaining portion, including almost the
whole of Macedonia and part of the vilayet of Adrianople, was left
under Turkish administration. No special organization was provided
for the districts thus abandoned; it was stipulated that laws
similar to the organic law of
Crete should be introduced into the various parts
of Turkey in Europe, but this engagement was never carried out by
the Porte. Vranya, Pirot and Nish were given to Servia, and the
transference of the Dobrudja to Rumania was sanctioned. This
artificial division of the Bulgarian nation could scarcely be
regarded as possessing elements of permanence. It was provided that
the prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the population,
and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the powers,
and that, before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables,
convoked at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the
principality. The drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia
was assigned to a European commission.
The Constitution of Trnovo. - Pending the completion of
their political organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were
occupied by Russian troops and administered by Russian officials.
The assembly of notables, which met at Trnovo in 1879, was mainly
composed of half-educated peasants, who from the first displayed an
extremely democratic spirit, in which they proceeded to manipulate
the very liberal constitution submitted to them by Prince
Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian governorgeneral. The long period of
Turkish domination had effectually obliterated all social
distinctions, and the radical element, which now formed into a
party under Tzankoff and Karaveloff, soon gave evidence of its
predominance. Manhood suffrage, a single chamber, payment of
deputies, the absence of property qualification for candidates, and
the
prohibition of
all titles and distinctions, formed salient features in the
constitution now elaborated. The organic statute of Eastern Rumelia
was largely modelled on the Belgian constitution. The
governor-general, nominated for five years by the sultan with the
approbation of the powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly
representative, partly composed of
ex-officio members; a
permanent committee was entrusted with the preparation of
legislative measures and the general supervision of the
administration, while a council of six "
directors" fulfilled the duties of a
ministry.
On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly at Trnovo, on the
proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of Bulgaria Prince
Alexander of
Battenberg, a member of the grand ducal
house of
Hesse and a nephew of
the tsar
Alexander II. Arriving in
Bulgaria on the 7th of July, Prince Alexander, then in his
twenty-third year, found all the authority, military and civil, in
Russian hands. The history of the earlier portion of his reign is
marked by two principal features - a strong Bulgarian reaction
against Russian tutelage and a vehement struggle against the
autocratic institutions which the young ruler, under Russian
guidance, endeavoured to inaugurate. Both movements were
symptomatic of the determination of a strong-willed and egoistic
race, suddenly liberated from secular oppression, to enjoy to the
full the moral and material privileges of liberty. In the assembly
at Trnovo the popular party had adopted the watchword "Bulgaria for
the Bulgarians," and a considerable anti-Russian contingent was
included in its ranks. Young and inexperienced, Prince Alexander,
at the suggestion of the Russian
consul-general, selected his first ministry from
a small group of "Conservative" politicians whose views were in
conflict with those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon
compelled to form a "Liberal" administration under Tzankoff and
Karaveloff. The Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent
campaign against foreigners in general and the Russians in
particular; they passed an
alien
law, and ejected foreigners from every lucrative position. The
Russians made a vigorous resistance, and a state of
chaos ensued. Eventually the
prince, finding good government impossible, obtained the consent of
the tsar to a change of the constitution, and assumed absolute
authority on the 9th of May 1881. The Russian general Ernroth was
appointed sole minister, and charged with the duty of holding
elections for the Grand Sobranye, to which the right of revising
the constitution appertained. So successfully did he discharge his
mission that the national representatives, almost without debate,
suspended the constitution and invested the prince with absolute
powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period of Russian
government followed under Generals Skobelev and Kaulbars, who were
specially despatched from St
Petersburg to enhance the authority of the
prince. Their administration, however, tended to a contrary result,
and the prince, finding himself reduced to
impotence, opened negotiations with the
Bulgarian leaders and effected a
coalition of all parties on the basis of a
restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had made an
unsuccessful attempt to remove the prince, withdrew; the
constitution of Trnovo was restored by proclamation (19th September
1883), and a coalition ministry was formed under Tzankoff. Prince
Alexander, whose relations with the court of St Petersburg had
become less cordial since the death of his uncle, the tsar
Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the serious displeasure of
Russia, and the
breach was
soon widened by the part which he played in encouraging the
national aspirations of the Bulgarians.
Union with Eastern Rumelia
In Eastern Rumelia, where the Bulgarian population never ceased
to protest against the division of the race, political life had
developed on the same lines as in the principality. Among the
politicians two parties had come into existence - the Conservatives
or self-styled "Unionists," and the Radicals, derisively called by
their opponents "Kazioni" or treasury-seekers; both were equally
desirous of bringing about the union with the principality. Neither
party, however, while in power would risk the sweets of office by
embarking in a hazardous
adventure. It was reserved for the Kazioni,
under their famous leader Zakharia Stoyanoff, who in early life had
been a shepherd, to realize the national
programme. In 1885 the Unionists were in
office, and their opponents lost no time in organizing a
conspiracy for the
overthrow of the governor-general, Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs
were facilitated by the circumstance that Turkey had abstained from
sending troops into the province. Having previously assured
themselves of Prince Alexander's acquiescence, they seized the
governor-general and proclaimed the union with Bulgaria (18th
September). The revolution took place without bloodshed, and a few
days later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis amid immense
enthusiasm. His position now became
precarious. The powers were scandalized at
the infraction of the Berlin Treaty; Great
Britain alone showed sympathy, while Russia
denounced the union and urged the Porte to reconquer the revolted
province - both powers thus reversing their respective attitudes at
the congress of Berlin.
War with Servia
The Turkish troops were massed at the frontier, and Servia,
hoping to profit by the difficulties of her
neighbour, suddenly declared war (14th
November). At the moment of danger the Russian officers, who filled
all the higher posts in the Bulgarian army, were withdrawn by order
of the tsar. In these critical circumstances Prince Alexander
displayed considerable ability and resource, and the nation gave
evidence of hitherto unsuspected qualities. Contrary to general
expectation, the Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped and led by
subaltern officers, successfully resisted the Servian invasion.
After brilliant victories at Slivnitza (19th November) and
Tsaribrod, Prince Alexander crossed the frontier and captured Pirot
(27th November), but his farther progress was arrested by the
intervention of Austria (see
Servo-Bulgarian War). The treaty of
Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in a single
clause, the restoration of peace. Servia, notwithstanding her
aggression, escaped a war
indemnity, but the union with Eastern Rumelia
was practically secured. By the convention of Top-Khane (5th April)
Prince Alexander was recognized by the sultan as governor-general
of eastern Rumelia; a personal union only was sanctioned, but in
effect the organic statute disappeared and the countries were
administratively united. These military and diplomatic successes,
which invested the prince with the attributes of a national hero,
quickened the decision of Russia to effect his removal. An
instrument was found in the discontent of several of his officers,
who considered themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards,
and a conspiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the
prime minister),
Archbishop
Clement, and other prominent persons
were implicated. On the night of the 21st of August the prince was
seized in his palace by several officers and compelled, under
menace of death, to sign his
abdication; he was then hurried to the
Danube at Rakhovo and transported to Russian soil at Reni. This
violent act met with instant disapproval on the part of the great
majority of the nation. Stamboloff, the president of the assembly,
and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the troops at Philippopolis,
initiated a
counter-revolution; the provisional government
set up by the conspirators immediately fell, and a few days later
the prince, who had been liberated by the Russian authorities,
returned to the country amid every demonstration of popular
sympathy and
affection.
His arrival forestalled that of a Russian imperial commissioner,
who had been appointed to proceed to Bulgaria. He now committed the
error of addressing a telegram to the tsar in which he offered to
resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This unfortunate step,
by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and represented
Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern rebuff,
and fatally compromised his position. The national leaders, after
obtaining a promise from the Russian representative at Sofia that
Russia would abstain from interference in the internal affairs of
the country, consented to his departure; on the 8th of September he
announced his abdication, and on the following day he left
Bulgaria.
The Regency
A regency was now formed, in which the prominent figure was
Stamboloff, the most remarkable man whom modern Bulgaria has
produced. A series of attempts to throw the country into anarchy
were firmly dealt with, and the Grand Sobranye was summoned to
elect a new prince. The candidature of the prince of
Mingrelia was now set up by
Russia, and General Kaulbars was despatched to Bulgaria to make
known to the people the wishes of the tsar. He vainly endeavoured
to postpone the
convocation of the Grand Sobranye in order
to gain time for the restoration of Russian influence, and
proceeded on an electoral tour through the country. The failure of
his mission was followed by the withdrawal of the Russian
representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand Sobranye, which assembled
at Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdemar of
Denmark, brother-in-law of the
tsar, but the honour was declined, and an anxious period ensued,
during which a deputation visited the principal capitals of Europe
with the twofold object of winning sympathy for the cause of
Bulgarian independence and discovering a suitable candidate for the
throne.
On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand Sobranye unanimously elected
Prince Ferdinand of SaxeCoburg-Gotha, a grandson, maternally, of
King
Louis
Philippe. The new prince, who was twenty-six years of age, was
at this time a lieutenant in the Austrian army. Undeterred by the
difficulties of the international situation and the distracted
condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took over the
government on the 14th of August at Trnovo. His arrival, which was
welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and critical
interregnum, but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian independence
were far from disappearing. Russia declared the newly-elected
sovereign a usurper; the other powers, in deference to her
susceptibilities, declined to recognize him, and the grand
vizier informed him that his
presence in Bulgaria was illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the
partisans of Russia to disturb internal tranquillity, and
Stamboloff, who became prime minister on the 1st of September,
found it necessary to govern with a strong hand. A
raid led by the Russian captain Nabokov was
repulsed;
brigandage,
maintained for political purposes, was exterminated; the bishops of
the Holy Synod, who, at the instigation of Clement, refused to pay
homage to the prince, were
forcibly removed from Sofia; a military conspiracy organized by
Major Panitza was crushed, and its leader executed. An attempt to
murder the energetic prime
minister resulted in the death of his colleague, Beltcheff, and
shortly afterwards Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at
Constantinople, was assassinated. While contending with
unscrupulous enemies at home, Stamboloff pursued a successful
policy abroad. Excellent relations were established with Turkey and
Rumania, valuable concessions were twice extracted from the Porte
in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate in Macedonia, and loans were
concluded with foreign financiers on comparatively favourable
terms. His overbearing character, however, increased the number of
his opponents, and alienated the
goodwill of the prince.
In the spring of 1903 Prince Ferdinand married Princess
Marie-Louise of
Bourbon-
Parma, whose family insisted on the condition
that the issue of the marriage should be brought up in the
Roman
Catholic faith. In view of the importance of establishing a
dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the unpopular course of altering
the clause of the constitution which required that the heir to the
throne should belong to the
Orthodox Church, and the Grand
Sobranye, which was convoked at Trnovo in the summer, gave effect
to this decision. The death of Prince Alexander, which took place
in the autumn, and the birth of an heir, tended to strengthen the
position of Prince Ferdinand, who now assumed a less compliant
attitude towards the prime minister. In 1894 Stamboloff resigned
office; a ministry was formed under Dr Staloff, and Prince
Ferdinand inaugurated a policy of conciliation towards Russia with
a view to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A Russophil
reaction followed, large numbers of political refugees returned to
Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of his enemies,
was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (15th July 1895).
The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar
Alexander III. in November
1894, and the reconciliation was practically effected by the
conversion of his eldest son, Prince Boris, to the Orthodox faith
(14th February 1896). The powers having signified their assent, he
was nominated by the sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor-general
of Eastern Rumelia (14th March). Russian influence now became
predominant in Bulgaria, but the cabinet of St Petersburg wisely
abstained from interfering in the internal affairs of the
principality. In February 1896 Russia proposed the reconciliation
of the Greek and Bulgarian churches and the removal of the exarch
to Sofia. The project, which involved a renunciation of the
exarch's jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong opposition in
Bulgaria, and was eventually dropped. The death of Princess
MarieLouise (30th January 1899), caused universal regret in the
country. In the same month the Stoiloff government, which had
weakly tampered with the Macedonian movement (see
Macedonia) and had thrown
the finances into disorder, resigned, and a ministry under Grekoff
succeeded, which endeavoured to mend the economic situation by
means of a foreign loan. The loan, however, fell through, and in
October a new government was formed under Ivanchoff and
Radoslavoff. This, in its turn, was replaced by a
cabinet
d'affaires under General Petroff (January 1901).
In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became
prime minister. His efforts to improve the financial situation,
which now became alarming, proved abortive, and in January 1902 a
Tzankovist cabinet was formed under Daneff, who succeeded in
obtaining a foreign loan. Russian influence now became predominant,
and in the autumn the
grand-duke Nicholas, General Ignatiev, and a great number
of Russian officers were present at the
consecration of a Russian church and
monastery in the
Shipka
pass. But the appointment of Mgr. Firmilian, a Servian
prelate, to the important see
of Uskub at the instance of Russia, the suspected designs of that
power on the ports of Varna and Burgas, and her unsympathetic
attitude in regard to the Macedonian Question, tended to diminish
her popularity and that of the government. A cabinet crisis was
brought about in May 1903, by the efforts of the Russian party to
obtain control of the army, and the Stambolovists returned to power
under General Petroff. A violent recrudescence of the Macedonian
agitation took place in the autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of
Russia the leaders were imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless
gained force, and in August 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet
of
Monastir, subsequently
spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia and Adrianople
(see
Macedonia). The
barbarities committed by the Turks in repressing the insurrection
caused great exasperation in the principality; the reserves were
partially mobilized, and the country was brought to the brink of
war. In pursuance of the policy of Stamboloff, the Petroff
government endeavoured to inaugurate friendly relations with
Turkey, and a TurcoBulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904)
which, however, proved of little practical value. The outrages
committed by numerous Greek bands in Macedonia led to
reprisals on the Greek
population in Bulgaria in the summer of 1906, and the town of
Anchialo was partially destroyed. On the 6th of November in that
year Petroff resigned, and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist
party, formed a ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of
undoubted patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated
on the 11th of March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from a
post in one of the agricultural banks, and the cabinet was
reconstituted under Gudeff, a member of the same party.
Declaration of Independence
During the
thirty years of its existence the
principality had made rapid and striking progress. Its inhabitants,
among whom a strong sense of nationality had grown up, were
naturally anxious to escape from the restrictions imposed by the
treaty of Berlin. That Servia should be an independent state, while
Bulgaria, with its greater economic and military resources,
remained tributary to the Sultan, was an
anomaly which all classes resented; and
although the Ottoman suzerainty was little more than a
constitutional fiction, and the tribute imposed in 1878 was never
paid, the Bulgarians were almost unanimous in their desire to end a
system which made their country the vassal of a Moslem state
notorious for its maladministration and corruption. This desire was
strengthened by the favourable reception accorded to Prince
Ferdinand when he visited Vienna in February 1908, and by the
so-called "Geshoff incident,"
i.e. the exclusion of M.
Geshoff, the Bulgarian
agent,
from a
dinner given by
Tewfik Pasha, the
Ottoman minister for foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the
sovereign states represented at Constantinople (12th of September
1908). This. was interpreted as an insult to the Bulgarian nation,
and as the explanation offered by the grand vizier was
unsatisfactory, M. Geshoff was recalled to Sofia. At this time the
bloodless revolution in Turkey seemed likely to bring about a
fundamental change in the settled policy of Bulgaria. For many
years past Bulgarians had hoped that their own orderly and
progressive government, which had contrasted so strongly with the
evils of Turkish rule, would entitle them to consideration, and
perhaps to an accession of territory, when the time arrived for a
definite settlement of the Macedonian Question. Now, however, the
reforms introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish party
threatened to deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future
intervention; there was nothing to be gained by further
acquiescence in the conditions laid down at Berlin. An opportunity
for effective action occurred within a fortnight of M. Geshoff's
recall,. when a strike broke out on those sections of the Eastern
Rumelian railways which were owned by Turkey and leased to the
Oriental Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged that during the
strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines which were
closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a
danger to their own
autonomy. The government therefore seized the
railway, in defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the
protests of the suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Company.
The bulk of the Turkish army was then in Asia, and the new regime
was not yet firmly established, while the Bulgarian government were
probably aware that Russia would not intervene, and that
Austria-Hungary
intended to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to
divert attention from their own violation of the treaty of Berlin.
On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand publicly proclaimed
Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885 (i.e. including
Eastern Rumelia), an independent kingdom. This declaration was read
aloud by the king in the church of the Forty Martyrs at Trnovo, the
ancient capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte immediately
protested to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. In
February 1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to
Bulgaria the difference between the f4,800,000 claimed by Turkey
and the 1,520,000 which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary
Russo-Turkish
protocol was
signed on the 16th of March, and in April, after the final
agreement had been concluded, the independence of Bulgaria was
recognized by the powers. Of the indemnity, (1,680,000 was paid on
account of the Eastern Rumelian railways; the allocation of this
sum between Turkey and the Oriental railways was submitted to
arbitration. (See
Turkey:
History.) .
Language And Literature
Language. - The Bulgarian is at
once the most ancient and the most modern of the languages which
constitute the Slavonic group. In its groundwork it presents the
nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the liturgical
language common to all the Orthodox Sla y s, but it has undergone
more important modifications than any of the sister dialects in the
simplification of its grammatical forms; and the analytical
character of its development may be compared with that of the
neo-Latin and Germanic languages. The introduction of the definite
article, which appears in the form of a suffix, and the almost
total disappearance of the ancient declensions, for which the use
of prepositions has been substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian
from all the other members of the Slavonic family. Notwithstanding
these changes, which give the language an essentially modern
aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical Slavonic, the
oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several
eminent scholars, such as Safarik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman,
and by many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in
describing the liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different
view, however, is maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others,
who regard it as "Old Slovene." According to the more generally
accepted theory, the dialect spoken by the Bulgarian population in
the neighbourhood of Salonica, the birthplace of SS. Cyril and
Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic apostles in their
translations from the Greek, which formed the model for subsequent
ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the fact
that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and
lesser
its), which have been modified in all the cognate
languages except Polish, retain their original
pronunciation
locally in the neighbourhood of Salonica and Castoria; in modern
literary Bulgarian the
rhinesmus has disappeared, but the
old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar pronunciation, the greater
its changing to u, as in English "but," the lesser to e,
as in "
bet," while in Servian,
Russian and Slovene the greater
its becomes u or
o, the lesser
e or
ya. The remnants of
the declensions still existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal
and adverbial forms) show a close
analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical
language.
The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in
869, St Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not
been preserved. The oldest existing copies, which date from the
10th century, already betray the influence of the contemporary
vernacular speech, but as the alterations introduced by the
copyists are neither constant nor regular, it is possible to
reconstruct the original language with tolerable certainty. The
"Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language
of the synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its
vocabulary. The Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek;
the Latin or German words which occasionally occur were derived
from Moravia and
Pannonia,
where the two saints pursued their missionary labours. In course of
time it underwent considerable modifications, both phonetic and
structural, in the various Slavonic countries in which it became
the liturgical language, and the various MSS. are consequently
classified as "Servian-Slavonic," "CroatianSlavonic,"
"Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different recensions.
The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language now in general
use among the Orthodox Sla y s of the Balkan Peninsula owing to the
great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the
17th and 18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was
believed to be the genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among
the Bulgarians the spoken language of the 9th century underwent
important changes during the next three hundred years. The
influence of these changes gradually asserts itself in the written
language; in the period extending from the 12th to the 15th century
the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model, but it
is evident that the vernacular had already become widely different
from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of the
MSS. of this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands
midway between the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern
speech.
In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic
features of the modern language became apparent in the literary
monuments. These features undoubtedly displayed themselves at a
much earlier period in the oral speech; but the progress of their
development has not yet been completely investigated. Much light
may be thrown on this subject by the examination :of many
hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the scientific study of
the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the article, the
loss of the noundeclensions, and the modification of the nasal
vowels above alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the
final vowels
yer-golem and
yer-maluk, the loss of
the
infinitive, and
the increased variety of the conjugations, distinguish the modern
from the ancient language. The suffix-article, which is derived
from the demonstrative pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the
Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the Rumanian among Latin languages.
This and other points of resemblance between these remotely related
members of the IndoEuropean group are shared by the Albanian,
probably the representative of the old Illyrian language, and have
consequently been attributed to the influence of the aboriginal
speech of the Peninsula. A demonstrative suffix, however, is
sometimes found in Russian and Polish, and traces of the article in
an embryonic state occur in the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th
and 11th centuries. In some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different
forms according to the proximity or remoteness of the object
mentioned. Thus
zhena-ta is "the woman";
zhena-va
or
zhena-sa, " the woman close by";
zhena-na, "
the woman yonder." In the borderland between the Servian and
Bulgarian nationalities the local use of the article supplies the
means of drawing an ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more
marked than in the immediate neighbourhood of the Servian
population, as, for instance, at Dibra and Prilep. The modern
Bulgarian has admitted many foreign elements. It contains about
2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words dispersed in the various
dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the
Turkish medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words are found.
Most of these are rejected by the purism of the literary language,
which, however, has been compelled to borrow the phraseology of
modern civilization from the Russian, French and other European
languages. The dialects spoken in the kingdom may be classed in two
groups - the eastern and the western. The main point of difference
is the pronunciation of the letter
yedvoino, which in the
eastern has frequently the
sound
of
ya, in the western invariably that of
e in
"pet." The literary language began in the western dialect under the
twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic. In
a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the
influence of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian
reaction was initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been
maintained by numerous writers educated in the German and Austrian
universities. Since the foundation of the university of Sofia the
literar y language has taken a middle course between the
ultra-Russian models of the past generation and the
dialectic Bulgarian. Little
uniformity, however, has yet been attained in regard to diction,
orthography or
pronunciation.
The Bulgarians of
pagan times
are stated by the monk Khrabr, a contemporary of Tsar Simeon, to
have employed a peculiar writing, of which inscriptions recently
found near Kaspitchan may possibly be specimens. The earliest
manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in one or other of
the two alphabets known as the
glagolitic and
Cyrillic (see
Slavs). The former was used by Bulgarian writers
concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th century. Among the
orthodox Sla y s the Cyrillic finally superseded the glagolitic; as
modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian
alphabet, which, with the
revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and Bulgaria.
Some Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been
abandoned by the native writers, and a few characters have been
restored from the ancient alphabet.
Literature
The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating in the works of
SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted for the most
part of theological works translated from the Greek. From the
conversion of Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious
character predominates, and the influence of Byzantine literature
is supreme. Translations of the gospels and epistles, lives of the
saints, collections of sermons, exegetic religious works,
translations of Greek chronicles, and miscellanies such as the
Sbornik of St Sviatoslav, formed the
staple of the national literature. In the time
of Tsar Simeon, himself an author, considerable literary activity
prevailed; among the more remarkable works of this period was the
Shestodnev, or Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account
of the creation. A little later the heresy of the
Bogomils gave an impulse to
controversial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were St
Kosmas and the monk Athanas of
Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the
Questions of St Ivan Bogoslof, a work containing a
description of the beginning and the end of the world, was held in
high esteem. Contemporaneously with the spread of this
sect a number of apocryphal works,
based on the Scripture narrative, but embellished with Oriental
legends of a highly imaginative character, obtained great
popularity. Together with these religious writings works of
fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance, such as
the life of
Alexander the Great, the story of
Troy, the tales of
Stephanit and Ichnilat and
Barlaam
and Josaphat, the latter founded on the biography of
Buddha. These were for the most
part reproductions or variations of the fantastical romances which
circulated through Europe in the middle ages, and many of them have
left traces in the national legends and folk-songs. In the 13th
century, under the Asen dynasty, numerous historical works or
chronicles (letopisi) were composed. State records appear to have
existed, but none of them have been preserved. With the Ottoman
conquest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of
moths and
worms, or fell a prey
to the fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy. The library of the
patriarchs of Trnovo was committed to the flames by the Greek
metropolitan Hilarion in 1825.
The monk Paisii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii
(1739-1815) have already been mentioned as the precursors of the
literary revival. The
Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska (1762) of
Paisii, written in the solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of
little historical value, but its influence upon the Bulgarian race
was immense. An ardent patriot, Paisii recalls the glories of the
Bulgarian tsars and saints, rebukes his fellow-countrymen for
allowing themselves to be called Greeks, and denounces the
arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot prelates. The
Life and
Sufferings of sinful Sofronii (1804) describes in simple and
touching language the condition of Bulgaria at the beginning of the
19th century. Both works were written in a modified form of the
church Slavonic. The first printed work in the vernacular appears
to have been the
Kyriakodromion, a translation of sermons,
also by Sofronii, published in 1806. The Servian and Greek
insurrections quickened the patriotic sentiments of the Bulgarian
refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia and southern Russia,
and Bucharest became the centre of their political and literary
activity. A modest
bukvar, or
primer, published at
Kronstadt by Berovitch in
1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations of
the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various
elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books
came the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the
monk Neophyt Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the
author of the first Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational
works, and translated the New Testament into the modern language.
Among the writers of the literary renaissance were George Rakovski
(1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the patriotic type, whose works
did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben Karaveloff
(1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff (1847-1876),
lyric poet, whose
ode on the death
of his friend Haji Dimitr, an insurgent leader, is one of the best
in the language, and Petko Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems,
patriotic, satirical and erotic, moulded the modern poetical
language and exercised a great influence over the people. Gavril
Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern Rumelia, and Marin
Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written historical works.
Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of revolutionary and
satirical
ballads; his
friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d.1889), who began life as a shepherd,
has left some interesting memoirs. The most distinguished Bulgarian
man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose epic and lyric poems
and
prose works form the best
specimens of the modern literary language. His novel
Pod
Igoto (Under the Yoke) has been translated into several
European languages. The best dramatic work is
Ivanko, a
historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some novels.
With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological
treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and
Urumoff to Velnovski's
Flora Bulgarica, no original works
on natural science have as yet been produced; a like dearth is
apparent in the fields of
philosophy, criticism and fine art, but it
must be remembered that the literature is still in its
infancy. The ancient folk-songs
have been preserved in several valuable collections; though
inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they deserve scientific
attention. Several
periodicals and reviews have been founded
in modern times. Of these the most important are the
Perioditchesko Spisanie, issued since 1869 by the
Bulgarian Literary Society, and the
Sbornik, a literary
and scientific
miscellany, formerly edited by Dr
Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published by the
government at irregular intervals.
Authorities.-C. J. Jirecek,
Das Fiirstenthum Bulgarien
(Prague, 1891), and
Cesty po
Bulharsku (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works of
the first importance;
Leon
Lamouche,
La Bulgarie dans le passé et le present (Paris,
1892); Prince
Francis Joseph of Battenberg,
Die
Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgariens (Leipzig, 1891);
F. Kanitz,
Donau-Bulgarien and der Balkan (Leipzig, 1882);
A. G. Drander,
Evenements politiques en Bulgarie (Paris,
1896); and
Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg (Paris,
1884); A. Strausz,
Die Bulgaren (Leipzig, 1898); A. Tuma,
Die ostliche Balkanhalbinsel (Vienna, 1886); A. de
Gubernatis,
La Bulgarie et les Bulgares (Florence, 1899);
E. Blech,
Consular Report on Bulgaria in 1889 (London,
1890);
La Bulgarie contemporaine (issued by the Bulgarian
Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905). Geology:
F. Toula,
Reisen and geologische Untersuchungen in
Bulgarien (Vienna, 1890); J. Cvijic, "Die Tektonik der
Balkanhalbinsel," in
C.R. IX. Cong. geol. intern. de Vienne, pp. 348-370, with
map, 1904. History: C. J. Jirecek,
Geschichte der Bulgaren (Prague, 1876); (a summary in
The Balkans, by
William Miller,
London, 1896); Sokolov, Iz
drevnei istorii
Bolgar (Petersburg, 1879) Uspenski,
Obrazovanie vtorago
Bolgarskago tsarstva (Odessa, 1879)
Acta Bulgariae
ecclesiastica, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram,
1887). Language: F. Miklosich,
Vergleichende Grammatik
(Vienna, 1879); and
Geschichte d. Lautbezeichnung im
Bulgarischen (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien,
Handbuch d.
altbulgarischen Sprache (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L.
Miletich,
Staroblgarska Gramatika (Sofia, 1896);
Das
Ostbulgarische (Vienna, 1903); Labrov,
Obzor zvulkovikh i
formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago yezika (Moscow, 1893); W.
R. Morfill,
A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian Language
(London, 1897); F. Vymazal,
Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache
leicht and Schnell zu
erlernen (Vienna, 1888).
Literature: L. A. H. Dozon,
Chansonsopulaires bulgares
inedites (with French translations), (Paris, 187
5);
A. Strausz,
Bulgarische Volksdichtungen (translations with
a preface and notes), (Vienna and
Leipzig, 1895);
Lydia Shishmanov,
Legendes religieuses
bulgares (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich,
History of
the Slavonic Literature (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879),
(French translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov,
Bulgarian Chrestomathy (Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov,
Blgarska Literatura (Philippopolis, 1896); Collections of
folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov (Agram,
1861), Bersonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882),
Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveikov
(Sofia, 1899). See also
The Shade of the Balkans, by
Pencho Slaveikov, H. Bernard and E. J. Dillon (London, 1904). (J.
D. B.)
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