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The Columbia Supercomputer, located at the NASA Ames Research Center.

History of computing

The Jacquard loom, on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England, was one of the first programmable devices.

EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von Neumann) architecture.

.

Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.

• Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability.^ If you happen to be chained to a desktop machine, I strongly reccomend the IBM Trackpoint Keyboard featuring their trademark red eraserhead pointing device.
  • memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ He had an electromechanical, freely-programmable binary computer working in his parents' living room in 1938.
  • memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ "Chipping at Intel" by Michael Meyer Nearly 150 million personal computers are working now, 9 out of 10 of them running Intel microprocessors.
  • Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  .In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer.^ However, this is only part of the story: the part that reaches back but to Turing and others (e.g., von Neuman) responsible for the first electronic computers.
  • Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC kryten.mm.rpi.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^[13]
.
• The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.^ I/O system needs to use the devices efficiently so as not to waste the CPU. A buffer is an area of memory set aside to help in the transfer of data between the computer and a device.
  • Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]
  
  ^ The number of sites using the Internet for product transactions will increase from 14% of the survey base in 1995 to 34% in 1996 and 44% in the next three to five years....
  • Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ O/S manages processes – programs in execution 7 – Computer Software 7.2.1 Starting up The most essential and frequently used instructions of the operating system are held in main memory.
  • Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]
  
  .The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact then its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.
• The secret British Colossus computers (1943),^[14] which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable.^ Computer Software 7.2.1.2 Disk Based Operating Systems With a disk based operating system the system software is held on backing storage and loaded into main memory when the machine is switched on.
  • Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]
  
  ^ Computer Structure 2.2.4 The fetch execute cycle To execute a machine code program it must first be loaded, together with any data that it needs, into main memory (RAM).
  • Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]
  
  ^ Preferential semantics relies on a function S taking a set K of models into a subset S ( K ) of K .
  • Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  .It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
• The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.
• The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics).^ Electronics, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., which is supported in part by the U. S. Army Signal Corps, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and the ONR—is based on earlier work done by the author as a Junior Fellow of the Society of Fellows, Harvard University.
  • Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ However, this is only part of the story: the part that reaches back but to Turing and others (e.g., von Neuman) responsible for the first electronic computers.
  • Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC kryten.mm.rpi.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Some have to do with the emerging development in computer science of ambitious applications using unprecedentedly large bodies of logical axioms.
  • Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.

Stored program architecture

mov #0,sum ; set sum to 0
mov #1,num ; set num to 1
loop: add num,sum ; add num to sum
add #1,num ; add 1 to num
cmp num,#1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt ; end of program. stop running

Programs

.

A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program.^ One in three children continues watching TV after [9pm when the programs containing violence or sex start].

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ One problem is that a program needs to be entirely self-reliant and contain, for example, drivers for all I/O devices it needs to use.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

Example

A traffic light showing red

1. ON(Streetname, Color) Turns the light on Streetname with a specified Color on.
2. OFF(Streetname, Color) Turns the light on Streetname with a specified Color off.
3. WAIT(Seconds) Waits a specifed number of seconds.
4. START Starts the program
5. REPEAT Tells the computer to repeat a specified part of the program in a loop.

START

//Let Broadway traffic go
OFF(Broadway, Red)
ON(Broadway, Green)
WAIT(60 seconds)

//Stop Broadway traffic
OFF(Broadway, Green)
ON(Broadway, Yellow)
WAIT(3 seconds)
OFF(Broadway, Yellow)
ON(Broadway, Red)

//Let Main traffic go
OFF(Main, Red)
ON(Main, Green)
WAIT(60 seconds)

//Stop Main traffic
OFF(Main, Green)
ON(Main, Yellow)
WAIT(3 seconds)
OFF(Main, Yellow)
ON(Main, Red)

//Tell computer to continuously repeat the program.^ But we should not let our inability to discern a locus of intelligence lead us to conclude that programmed computers therefore cannot think.
 Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence  - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]


^ One in three children continues watching TV after [9pm when the programs containing violence or sex start].
 Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]


^ Posted: 2006-06-09 18:14:21.167 Let me first start off by saying that "I don't totally dislike Sony" What I dislike is their "Ego".
 Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]



REPEAT ALL

.With this set of instructions, the computer would cycle the light continually through red, green, yellow and back to red again on both streets.^ Computer Structure 2.4.2 Accessing Memory The CPU has to access memory both for instructions and to receive and transmit data from or to memory.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ Computer Structure 2.2.4.1 The fetch execute cycle in detail This is how the: Address bus Data bus Control Bus Registers All take part in reading an instruction from memory and executing it.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ Actually, as I read back over it, I would slightly disagree with Michael when he says that today both areas change rapidly.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.However, suppose there is a simple on/off switch connected to the computer that is intended to be used to make the light flash red while some maintenance operation is being performed.^ There was not much gender difference in computer use reported by those entering college in 2000: 77.8% of women and 79.5% of men.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ There's only one way to avoid being suckered by the Bastard Operator from Hell 's Excuse of the Day : Read the Frigging Manual!

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

^ I suppose there might be some nature religions which take offense at all machines and which therefore might consider a self-assembling machine to be particularly egregious.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

The program might then instruct the computer to:

.

START

IF Switch == OFF then: //Normal traffic signal operation
{
//Let Broadway traffic go
OFF(Broadway, Red)
ON(Broadway, Green)
WAIT(60 seconds)

//Stop Broadway traffic
OFF(Broadway, Green)
ON(Broadway, Yellow)
WAIT(3 seconds)
OFF(Broadway, Yellow)
ON(Broadway, Red)

//Let Main traffic go
OFF(Main, Red)
ON(Main, Green)
WAIT(60 seconds)

//Stop Main traffic
OFF(Main, Green)
ON(Main, Yellow)
WAIT(3 seconds)
OFF(Main, Yellow)
ON(Main, Red)

//Tell the computer to repeat this section continuously.^ Computer Structure 2.3 Memory Main memory (RAM and ROM) stores programs and data while the computer is operating.
 Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]


^ The o/s builds its capability using what it already has, the ROM boot program, to load itself from disk into RAM. Once the operating system is loaded into main memory, it runs until the computer is switched off.
 Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]


^ Posted: 2006-06-09 18:14:21.167 Let me first start off by saying that "I don't totally dislike Sony" What I dislike is their "Ego".
 Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]



REPEAT THIS SECTION
}

IF Switch == ON THEN: //Maintenance Mode
{
//Turn the red lights on and wait 1 second.
ON(Broadway, Red)
ON(Main, Red)
WAIT(1 second)

//Turn the red lights off and wait 1 second.
OFF(Broadway, Red)
OFF(Main, Red)
WAIT(1 second)

//Tell the computer to repeat the statements in this section.
REPEAT THIS SECTION
}

.In this manner, the traffic signal will run a flash-red program when the switch is on, and will run the normal program when the switch is off.^ Take the question and translate it into a query that the Wolfram program can understand, and you're off and running.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Both of these program examples show the basic layout of a computer program in a simple, familiar context of a traffic signal.^ Interestingly, the computer program driving that strategy consisted of only four lines of BASIC code.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ "The annual freshman survey conducted by UCLAs Higher Education Research Institute showed increasing familiarity of entering students with computers.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A more basic example given is an artificial intelligence which has been programmed to build certain structures on the moon, and given no other instructions.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Any experienced programmer can spot many software bugs in the program, for instance, not making sure that the green light is off when the switch is set to flash red.^ But if you know as well that a is illuminated by red lights, and that such lights can make things look red when they aren't, the connection is threatened.

• Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC kryten.mm.rpi.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Finding a good set of properties is the major concern of many heuristic programs.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.However, to remove all possible bugs would make this program much longer and more complicated, and would be confusing to nontechnical readers: the aim of this example is a simple demonstration of how computer instructions are laid out.^ It is safe to say that all simple, unitary, notions of how to build an intelligent machine will fail, rather sharply, for some modest level of problem difficulty.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Computer Economics says the Love Bug virus retains the top spot all time, costing organizations $8.75 billion."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A computer program that can parse Jeopardy questions (I know: answers ) would be the perfect front-end for something like Wolfram Alpha .

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

Function

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor

.A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O).^ ALU involves arithmetic operations and logical operations .

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ Input Processor Memory RAM & ROM Output Backing Storage CPU 2 Computer Structure 2.2.2.1 The structure of the CPU (a) Memory Processor Control unit ALU Registers, A, MAR, MDR, PC, SP Address bus – 1 way Data bus – 2 way Control Bus Internal buses 2 Computer Structure 2.2.2.1 The structure of the CPU (b) ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit) Data is processed and manipulated.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ Computer Software 7.2.5.1 Direct Memory Access A device controller usually has its own memory on board.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

.Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch.^ But these early forays into the gender-optional lifestyle will be seen as crude and primitive by gender-switching intelligences living in what we would think of as virtual, electronic worlds.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation).^ Traditionally, the task of representing large amounts of domain information for general-purpose reasoning has been one of the most important areas of knowledge representation.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

.The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.^ The case of philosophical logic that forms the theme of this article may provide support for the more general point.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ On the one hand there are many practically important applications of automated planning, and on the other logical formalizations of planning are genuinely helpful in understanding the problems and in designing algorithms.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ The problem is that default logic does not provide for more specific defaults to override ones that are more general.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). .Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.^ By the early 1970s, many philosophers felt that philosophical papers on logic were unlikely to be accepted by the JSL , and that if they were accepted they were unlikely to be read by philosophers.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ A separate knowledge representation component is useful for software engineering purposes—it is much better to have a single representation of a general fact that can have many different uses, since this makes the system easier to develop and to modify.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

Control unit

Main articles: CPU design and Control unit

Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.

.The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer.^ But at least 500 are considered serious attempts at breaking into classified systems....

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Mailscape is a complete systems management tool that combines all the key elements for Exchange monitoring, reporting and administration into a single, affordable solution.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ But the cost that's increased is that users are now the system managers, and that's costing a minimum of $50 billion a year to the 50 or 100 million computer users in lost time."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[22] .Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.^ IBM hopes to advance toward this objective with Watson, a computer system that will play Jeopardy!, the popular TV trivia game show, against human contestants.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The results of the study, reported in the Journal of Experimental Biology, may eventually aid the development of computer vision systems.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ PRCS is a revision control system with many improvments over CVS to Computing by joshua .

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

.A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.^ This in combination with their TUSCON software release provides a uniform common API to all adapters both PCIx and PCIe enabling easy programming of the adapters.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^[23]

The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

.

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device).^ Some of these may be hard-coded into the brain itself, while others may evolve by trial-and-error, or be programmed or taught to it socially through the process of education (which takes many years at the least).
   • This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]
   
   ^ The point here is that adding content to Twine, or other next-generation interest networks, should result in increasing returns.
   • This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]
   
   ^ That is, a nonmonotonic inference may require not merely the presence of a set of proved conclusions, but the absence of certain other conclusions.
   • Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]
   
   The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).

.Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program.^ The axioms that specify the effects of actions treat these effects as caused; for instance, the axiom schema for loading would read as follows: .

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Did he really dream or was this just another by-product of his AI programming?

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ I would say the same about any film, in fact I have in another recent article.It's just that the self-involvement of some of the reviews I've read for A.I. have bordered on McCarthyism.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).^ [This violates, for example, the restrictions on "DO loops" in programming systems such as FORTRAN. Convenient techniques for programming such processes were developed by Newell, Shaw, and Simon [64]; the program state-variables are stored in "pushdown lists" and both the program and the data are stored in the form of "list-structures."

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A more basic example given is an artificial intelligence which has been programmed to build certain structures on the moon, and given no other instructions.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program—and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.^ Torrid Technologies' Retirement Savings Planner is a PC-based software program that runs on all versions of Microsoft Windows(R).

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ A computer program that can parse Jeopardy questions (I know: answers ) would be the perfect front-end for something like Wolfram Alpha .

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ Suppose that there is available, for a given problem, some other problem of "essentially the same character" but with less detail and complexity.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

Main article: Arithmetic logic unit

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.^[24]

.The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and square roots.^ For certainly the programmer may set up an evolutionary system whose limitations are for him unclear and possibly incomprehensible.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ In fact, it is generally supposed that the domain of fluents will be a very limited set of the totality of situation-dependent functions; typically, it will be a relatively small finite set of important variables, and will be chosen in particular cases much as a set of variables is chosen in statistical modeling.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Connections between information and applications (databases and data sets stored or accessible by particular apps) Connections between people and applications (user accounts, preferences, cookies, etc.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

.Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision.^ Some estimates report that only slightly more than 30% of the code developed in application software development ever gets used as intended by end-users.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ If it weren't for this one frustrating limitation I would really use Pandora all the time to discover and buy new music.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ If Sony is the only company willing to actually let us use it as a computer, IE - internet, multimedia, (Operating system?

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

.However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform.^ In just over a day, a powerful computer program accomplished a feat that took physicists centuries to complete: extrapolating the laws of motion from a pendulum's swings.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ Since the computer understands the meaning behind words, it will be more successful finding what you really want than it is currently by just matching words.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ What's hard, and what's new about what we have done, is that we've accomplished this for much more complex data than the simple flat files that Google indexes.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

.Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation.^ Spielberg does not directly reveal who is telling the story, taking more of a Nabokovian approach to it.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ While computers continue to take on more and more of the hallmarks of intelligence, critics are able to (correctly) point out that we appear to be making no progress towards passing the big test.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The semantic map is reportedly the world's largest, and gives computers a vocabulary more than 10 times as extensive as that of a typical US college graduate.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").^ I want a PS3 eventually (I have to have one for no other reason than to play Metal Gear Solid 4...

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ Of seniors older than 65 whose annual household income is less than $20,000 a year...an even slighter 15 percent have gone online."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Less than 6 percent of surfers manage to use Boolean search terms, which are the `and' and `or,' and plus and minus signs that correspond to the way a computer filters data."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. .These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.^ Ever since the PhotoTrackr was created, photographers, both amateur and professional, have been making use of its easy-to-use features, allowing them to properly date, map, categorize, and organize their photos.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ Local clients may be created for various devices, but ultimately the most logical choice is to just use the browser as the client.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ But the left-nonmonotonicity of conditionals (the fact that A C does not imply [ A ∧ B ] C ) creates issues that parallel those in nonmonotonic logics.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

.Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time.^ Two-thirds of the respondents report that they go online several times a day, seven days a week."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ They made mention several times during the movie that the human race was dying and would be replaced.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ If the noise is not too severe, we may be able to manage the identification by what we call a normalization and template-matching process.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[25] .Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.^ EASEUS Partition Master Server Edition, the leading partition management solution, provides innovative features to maximize server performance and minimize server downtime.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

Memory

Main article: Computer data storage

Magnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. .The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything.^ More than two-thirds of the world's scientists read English, the council adds, three-quarters of the world's mail is written in the language and 80 percent of the world's information stored on computers is in English.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The number PhDs conferred in the U.S.: Computer and information sciences: 1982: 251 1992: 772 Mathematics 1982: 721 1992: 1082 Engineering 1982: 2621 1992: 5488 .

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease.^ For example, to help find a place to eat, user preferences for cuisine, price range, location, or even specific food items come into play.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ With 1,300 miles of fiber-optic lines being laid every day in the U.S., bandwidth is sure to rise even faster than the number of networked computers."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.^ No stolen serial numbers are listed without this information.

• Stolen Computers and Hardware 10 February 2010 13:39 UTC www.ccmostwanted.com [Source type: Academic]

^ If the chemical compositions and neuronal pathways of humans were eventually perfectly mapped and could be re-created, what woud be the difference between building a human and giving birth to one?

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte).^ The focus will be on keep up with all the stuff flowing through and what the trends are, rather than on all the stuff that is stored there already.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ "The number of U.S. homes with one or more personal computers increased by 16% [in 1995] to about 38 million households, up from 33 million in 1994 and 25 million in 1993....

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ AllMemory We carry all major computer memory brands including Dell, Samsung, Compaq, Toshiba and many more!

• Computer Hardware Directory of Indiana 10 February 2010 13:39 UTC indiana.uscity.net [Source type: General]

.Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight).^ "More than 9.8 million children are using the Internet, a number projected to triple in the next four years...

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Several other market research firms, using older data, have put the number at 35 million to 45 million adult users in the U.S. alone.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This isn't a Kubrick movie, hell it's not your typical Spielberg movie either....it's a combination of the two.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation.^ Due to what they report as a requirement of their music license the user is only allowed to skip a small number of songs per hour.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. .A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically.^ His quest was fulfilled...I believe the evolved A.I.s dowloanded his memories and information he stored...

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

.The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area.^ Putting together entries for this blog means that I read an amazing story every other day -- sometimes more frequently than that.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ Most people who read and write about technology are more like Star trek fans than they are political junkies.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ More than two-thirds of the world's scientists read English, the council adds, three-quarters of the world's mail is written in the language and 80 percent of the world's information stored on computers is in English.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed.^ A.I. reviews, but im seeing so many similarities, between the reviews here, the 6 over at my site and even the big name ones at Time and Newsweek.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "Between 1995 and 2000, paper use increased 12 percent while there were almost 5 percent more computers at workplaces.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A new mathematical technique provides a dramatically better way to analyze data, such as audio data, radar, sonar, or any other form of time-frequency data .

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

.As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.^ The usefulness and scope of logical methods in relation to linguistics is greatly increased by the development of techniques for analyzing the way information attaches to linguistic units.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ EASEUS Partition Master is able to help computer users increase their C drive to speed up computers when the system drive is at low disk space.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ The report cites technological advances such as computer-aided design programs as a main reason for the increases in productivity.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it.^ Evaluating only the cost of intrusions by hackers, who exploit flaws in computer security, Gartner Group comes up with $5.4 billion a year..."Software quality is about removing or preventing defects.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ While the fMRI machine monitored the changes in brain activity, a computer crunched the data and learned to associate the various changes in brain activity with the different image designs.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ More than two-thirds of the world's scientists read English, the council adds, three-quarters of the world's mail is written in the language and 80 percent of the world's information stored on computers is in English.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions.^ The Dell Store at Dell Financial Services has quality refurbished Dell Computers, refurbished Dell Notebooks, refurbished Dell Laptops, refurbished Dell PCs, refurbished Dell Desktops, and used Dell computers.

• Computer Hardware Directory of Indiana 10 February 2010 13:39 UTC indiana.uscity.net [Source type: General]

In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. .In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset.^ (SEND2PRESS NEWSWIRE) -- EASEUS Software, the innovative, dedicated data recovery software provider, offers a one-stop solution to 'unformat' a hard disk drive or external hard disk.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ Extensions for Windows is the first community driven, modular upgrade for Windows XP and Vista and contains a number of new features Windows users have desired as part of the operating system.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ PS3 all have a CPU, graphics card, RAM, Mobo, power supply and they now have hard drives.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

.In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software.^ My take is that either all this less-relevant progress is more relevant than we thought, or the test itself is of questionable relevance.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ CompUSA CcompUSA is your source for computers, motherboards, processors, memory, hard drives, components, monitors and much more at the lowest prices in the industry.

• Computer Hardware Directory of Indiana 10 February 2010 13:39 UTC indiana.uscity.net [Source type: General]

^ Low-fat computing is a heretical approach to the integrated design of hardware/software systems, based on the Forth philosophy of Chuck Moore and Jeff Fox .

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

.Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable.^ I/O system needs to use the devices efficiently so as not to waste the CPU. A buffer is an area of memory set aside to help in the transfer of data between the computer and a device.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ Computer Structure 2.3 Memory Main memory (RAM and ROM) stores programs and data while the computer is operating.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ The o/s builds its capability using what it already has, the ROM boot program, to load itself from disk into RAM. Once the operating system is loaded into main memory, it runs until the computer is switched off.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

.It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.^ Using Networks 6.4.3 Wireless Features Slower than conventional cabling.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ I do believe, however, that the concepts will be more useful for us if we begin to see them as positives rather than stand-ins for the things we hate the most.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ This technology is used in applications from postage to safeguarding nuclear weapons , and attacking it is the subject of much research .

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

^[26]

.In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.^ Really, it'd be very nice to be able to surf the net and play console games on one platform rather than having to switch to a standard computer.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ With 1,300 miles of fiber-optic lines being laid every day in the U.S., bandwidth is sure to rise even faster than the number of networked computers."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Since the computer understands the meaning behind words, it will be more successful finding what you really want than it is currently by just matching words.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.^ While the fMRI machine monitored the changes in brain activity, a computer crunched the data and learned to associate the various changes in brain activity with the different image designs.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ They are often designed so that they automatically spread to other computer users on a network.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

^ The Computer Misuse Act covers crimes such as breaking into computer systems or networks to destroy or steal data and propagating viruses which destroy or damage information or computer systems.

• Computer Systems 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.slideshare.net [Source type: Reference]

Input/output (I/O)

Main article: Input/output

Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.^[27] Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.^[28] .On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer.^ It utilizes a 19.0-inch wide screen diagonal color TFT LCD as display and a resistive touch screen as the input device.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ Ransom69 Posted: 2006-06-07 21:16:29.357 "With an expansion slot for a hard drive and USB ports for peripherals like a mouse or keyboard, the PS2 is, according to Sony, all of the computer your family needs."

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ Computing Industry News Recent Computer Industry News Stories from Send2Press Newswire : Computer Technology News includes computing news, computer industry news, IT accessibility, computer hardware news, biometrics news, peripherals news, software industry news, computer education news, and related newswire stories.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

.Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.^ (SEND2PRESS NEWSWIRE) -- EASEUS Software, the innovative, dedicated data recovery software provider, offers a one-stop solution to 'unformat' a hard disk drive or external hard disk.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ This application is designed to back up or copy hard drives for upgrading to a newer larger hard disk.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ (SEND2PRESS NEWSWIRE) -- EASEUS Software, the innovative, dedicated data recovery software provider, offers a one-stop solution for data recovery from hard drive disk or portable storage device under Windows OS environment.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

Computer networking is another form of I/O.

Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. .A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics^{[citation needed]}.^ Featuring an XGA 12.1" display, 3d accelerated graphics, a 0.18 micron process Pentium III at 400mhz, and a modular bay that takes a DVD drive in a svelte package that weighs between 3.7 and 4.5lbs.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

^ Three, the ability to evolve could mean we could swap out graphics chips for more advanced setups, much like a computer.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ But while Wolfram Alpha includes a huge knowledge base, I doubt it contains more than a tiny fraction of all the information that can be found on the Web.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.

Multitasking

Main article: Computer multitasking

.While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.^ After storing several years worth of music and films, the disk runs out of space.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ In playing a complex game such as chess or checkers, or in writing a computer program, one has a definite success criterion—the game is won or lost.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The results of the study, reported in the Journal of Experimental Biology, may eventually aid the development of computer vision systems.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.^[29]

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. .If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time.^ The second paper goes on to discuss a sequence of modifications in the program generator and its reinforcement operators.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The ordinary, uniformly-weighted average has the same general form but with time‑dependent q : .

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ They might all start out the same, but wouldn't each instantiation of these programs quickly diversify based on the experiences and preferences of the individual intelligences which "runs its personality" in that environment?

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.^ Over the past five years, patent, copyright, and other intellectual property cases have occurred 10 times faster than other cases.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A.I. reviews, but im seeing so many similarities, between the reviews here, the 6 over at my site and even the big name ones at Time and Newsweek.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ With 1,300 miles of fiber-optic lines being laid every day in the U.S., bandwidth is sure to rise even faster than the number of networked computers."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.^[30]

.Before the era of cheap computers, the principle use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.^ People don't want to manage all their information on the Web in the same interface they use to manage data and apps on their local PC. .

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ It's only because Spielberg has had so many hits..people only expect the next Masterpiece and a dawn of a new era in film!!

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ At the same time, the amount of people using it has increased from 2 million in 1998 to 23 million today."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly — in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running.^ Among families earning between $15,000 and $35,000 annually, more than a third of white families owned computers, while just one in five black families did.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ PS3 is going need updates like the computers do, would you need to spend more money to play some games???...

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ "Between 1995 and 2000, paper use increased 12 percent while there were almost 5 percent more computers at workplaces.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks.^ Kutaragi further implied that the PS3 may adapt over time, much like computers do now as hardware technology changes: ""However, the PS3 is a computer," Kutaragi said.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ However, IMHO, with the work done by Spielberg lately, i'm not expecting much this time around.

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred.^ Meanwhile, a separate study from Stanford University indicates that email is taking a toll on users' social lives, finding that Internet users tend to devote less time to social events and personal phone calls."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "Microsoft is introducing a revision to the Visual Basic programming language, which has some 3.3 million users, to take advantage of its .Net Web services model.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.^ Some of these may be hard-coded into the brain itself, while others may evolve by trial-and-error, or be programmed or taught to it socially through the process of education (which takes many years at the least).

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ Which brings up the question - was there anything wrong with what the humans were doing at the flesh fair (other than that they were wasting their time and money).

• Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news. 2 February 2010 13:21 UTC www.aintitcool.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Real Time Battle and Robot Battle are just two of many games in which the object is not to do battle with the competition directly but instead write little programs that fight each other on a virtual battlefield.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

Multiprocessing

Main article: Multiprocessing

Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

.Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers.^ Some have to do with the emerging development in computer science of ambitious applications using unprecedentedly large bodies of logical axioms.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Such a development has the potential to unite the machine world and the human world in a completely new and powerful way.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The software stitches images automatically, and would be great for pasting large documents scanned on consumer scanning products , if I could only get the low overlap case to work.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

.Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.^ Making super-fast, super-powerful computers more widely available can only empower such individuals.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ "Chipping at Intel" by Michael Meyer Nearly 150 million personal computers are working now, 9 out of 10 of them running Intel microprocessors.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The report says 90 percent, or 47.4 million, of children between the ages of 5 and 17 now use computers at home and at school.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.^ Interestingly, the computer program driving that strategy consisted of only four lines of BASIC code.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ This paper emphasizes the class of activities in which a general-purpose computer, complete with a library of basic programs, is further programmed to perform operations leading to ever higher-level information processing functions such as learning and problem solving.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ For he would find only a few machines mostly general-purpose computers), programmed for the moment to behave according to some specification) doing things that might claim any real intellectual status.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[31] .They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware.^ Anyhow the ps3 is not a computer in my book, and their claim that it rivals todays high end cpus is just pure hype.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ LowerBound is a computer hardware search engine that scans pricewatch and many other web retailers for best prices, product features, and so on.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

.Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.^ Even when attempted on a moderate scale, the formalization of common sense knowledge puts considerable pressure on the resources of even the most powerful logical systems that were devised for the formalization of mathematics.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Stone shows that modal logic can be used to modularize the formalization of the information required in this task; he also shows how modal theorem proving can be used to implement the reasoning.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Just as programming systems, expert systems and knowledge bases have created corresponding software engineering disciplines, large-scale formalization projects require a carefully thought through and tested methodology.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

.Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.^ Most research in AI is devoted to fairly narrow applications, such as planning or speech-to-speech translation in limited, well defined task domains.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Developments such as this would have been impossible without the interactions between the logical theories and large-scale, practical applications in automated planning.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

Networking and the Internet

Main articles: Computer networking and Internet

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.

.Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s.^ The success information is used to reinforce individual instructions (in fixed locations) so that each success tends to increase the chance that the instructions of successful programs will appear in later trials.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The report says 90 percent, or 47.4 million, of children between the ages of 5 and 17 now use computers at home and at school.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "Between 1995 and 2000, paper use increased 12 percent while there were almost 5 percent more computers at workplaces.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.^ Extensions for Windows is the first community driven, modular upgrade for Windows XP and Vista and contains a number of new features Windows users have desired as part of the operating system.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ Like variable-free versions of first-order logic (see, for instance, Quine 1960 , these systems are centered on concepts or first-order predicates, and provide a number of mechanisms for their definition.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ In Japan, 10 percent of drivers rely on such systems, and that number is growing rapidly."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[32]

.In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology.^ The technology works by using the computer microphone to make brief snippet recordings of your room where you are.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

.This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET.^ Now, companies are tweaking their internal corporate computer networks so that they can communicate through the Internet with the networks of their customers.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ I’ve been writing about a new trend that I call “interest networking” for a while now .

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^[33] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.

.In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet.^ The Networked Computer Science Technical Reference Library is a search engine for academic papers in Computer Science topics that lets you search by journal, title, abstract, author and institution.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. .Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer.^ Among the top technologies that contribute to productivity are collaborative software tools, newer PCs, increased network bandwidth, mobile computing devices, and wireless devices.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Our products include barebone, system, computer, case, drive, enclosure, USB products, power supply, dance pad, game accessories etc.

• Computer Hardware Directory of Indiana 10 February 2010 13:39 UTC indiana.uscity.net [Source type: General]

^ If Sony is the only company willing to actually let us use it as a computer, IE - internet, multimedia, (Operating system?

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

.Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.^ So what are the 15 people at Radar Networks working on?

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ In five years, 350 million computers will have become obsolete and about 55 million are likely to reach landfills, says the National Safety Council...In addition, while 97 percent of computer parts can be recycled for use in other computers or as scrap metal, qualified recyclers deal primarily with companies and are not widely known among consumers...The high-tech industry is also taking some responsibility, with companies such as IBM working to design computers that can be recycled more easily."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ THE WHITE HOUSE, Office of the Press Secretary, January 21, 2000, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY, http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/New/html/20000121_2.html "During the past seven years, computers, high-speed communication systems, and computer software have become more powerful and more useful to people at home and work.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally.^ With 1,300 miles of fiber-optic lines being laid every day in the U.S., bandwidth is sure to rise even faster than the number of networked computers."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information.^ Now, companies are tweaking their internal corporate computer networks so that they can communicate through the Internet with the networks of their customers.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ By 2001, 268 million computers will be connected to the Internet, generating $32.2 billion in revenue for the software and computer services industries, Dataquest said.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Connections between information and people (personal data collections, blogs, social bookmarking, search results, etc.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

."Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.^ Among the top technologies that contribute to productivity are collaborative software tools, newer PCs, increased network bandwidth, mobile computing devices, and wireless devices.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "Mobile phones are rapidly becoming the preferred means of personal communication, creating the world's largest consumer electronics industry.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ With 1,300 miles of fiber-optic lines being laid every day in the U.S., bandwidth is sure to rise even faster than the number of networked computers."

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Further topics

Hardware

Main article: Personal computer hardware

.The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects.^ And what will those terms mean to a subsequent generation which originates in the new substrate, beings that don't necessarily start out with gender as a fundamental part of their identity?

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

^ By the way, for those of you unfamiliar with the term, the neocortex is that special core brain part that only mammals have.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

.Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.^ PS3 all have a CPU, graphics card, RAM, Mobo, power supply and they now have hard drives.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

History of computing hardware

First Generation (Mechanical/Electromechanical)	Calculators	Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden bombsight
	Programmable Devices	Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes)	Calculators	Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120
	Programmable Devices	Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits)	Mainframes	IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
	Minicomputer	PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated circuits)	Minicomputer	VAX, IBM System i
	4-bit microcomputer	Intel 4004, Intel 4040
	8-bit microcomputer	Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
	16-bit microcomputer	Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
	32-bit microcomputer	Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
	64-bit microcomputer[34]	Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64
	Embedded computer	Intel 8048, Intel 8051
	Personal computer	Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical/experimental	Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics based computer

Other Hardware Topics

Peripheral device (Input/output)	Input	Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner, Webcam, Graphics tablet, Microphone
	Output	Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker
	Both	Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses	Short range	RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
	Long range (Computer networking)	Ethernet, ATM, FDDI

Software

Main article: Computer software

.Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc.^ The report cites technological advances such as computer-aided design programs as a main reason for the increases in productivity.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Nova Spivack: Will Siri be part of the Semantic Web, or at least the open linked data Web (by making open API’s, sharing of linked data, RDF, available, etc.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ A new mathematical technique provides a dramatically better way to analyze data, such as audio data, radar, sonar, or any other form of time-frequency data .

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

.When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.^ The demonstrations provide step-by-step overviews of how the software and hardware work together to obtain strain data over areas of deformed sheet metal or plastic parts.

• Computing News from Send2Press Newswire :: Thu, 04 Feb 2010, 13:50:03 EST 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC www.send2press.com [Source type: General]

^ One cannot expect easily to find a small set of properties that will be just right for a problem area.

• Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence - - -Marvin Minsky 19 January 2010 8:47 UTC web.media.mit.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "Last year the videogame industry raked in $6.3 billion (between software and hardware), just shy of the record $6.9 billion movies earned at the box office....

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Computer software

Operating system	Unix and BSD	UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
	GNU/Linux	List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
	Microsoft Windows	Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows CE
	DOS	86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS
	Mac OS	Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
	Embedded and real-time	List of embedded operating systems
	Experimental	Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library	Multimedia	DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
	Programming library	C standard library, Standard Template Library
Data	Protocol	TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
	File format	HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface	Graphical user interface (WIMP)	Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM
	Text-based user interface	Command-line interface, Text user interface
Application	Office suite	Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
	Internet Access	Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
	Design and manufacturing	Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
	Graphics	Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
	Audio	Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
	Software engineering	Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
	Educational	Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
	Games	Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
	Misc	Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager

Programming languages

.Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run.^ For example, various dynasties and historical periods are also given names and this provides shorthand way of referring to those periods and their unique flavors.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ Logic, for instance, can provide a specification for a programming language by characterizing a mapping from programs to the computations that they license.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. .They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter.^ Sweet...I'm not THAT deep into PC's that I mod/code...but since you can...kudos, it takes a special breed to take the time to figure anything in that field out.

• Hey! The PS3 is a Computer, Not a Game System: News from 1UP.com 3 February 2010 14:59 UTC www.1up.com [Source type: General]

^ Until then, we've got Generic Java , which adds polymorphic types to Java and still compiles into standard Java bytecode.

• memepool.com: Computing archive 6 February 2010 10:54 UTC memepool.com [Source type: General]

^ They settle on the idea that unmotivated actions are to be minimized, where an action (“actions” construed generally enough to include any change) can be motivated directly, e.g.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. .There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.^ We then apply a range of new algorithms to the data (part of our secret sauce) to generate some very interesting and useful new information about the Web.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ And other differences originate in the interest of philosophical logicians in some topics (metaphysical topics, for instance) that are primarily inspired by purely philosophical considerations.

• Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ There was not much gender difference in computer use reported by those entering college in 2000: 77.8% of women and 79.5% of men.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Programming languages

Lists of programming languages	Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly languages	ARM, MIPS, x86
Commonly used high-level programming languages	Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
Commonly used Scripting languages	Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl

Professions and organizations

.As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.^ "The numbers of computers in schools is increasing rapidly...

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ There was not much gender difference in computer use reported by those entering college in 2000: 77.8% of women and 79.5% of men.

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "The number of U.S. homes with one or more personal computers increased by 16% [in 1995] to about 38 million households, up from 33 million in 1994 and 25 million in 1993....

• Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Computer-related professions

Hardware-related	Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering
Software-related	Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design

.The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.^ This new desktop will provide an interface both to your local device, applications and information, as well as to your online life and information.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ My many talks with him really got me interested in organizations and society.

• This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]

^ Over the next two years scientists from both organizations will work together using the huge computational capacity of IBM’s eServer Blue Gene supercomputer to create a detailed model of the circuitry in the neocortex – the largest and most complex part of the human brain.

• The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]

Organizations

Standards groups	ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies	ACM, ACM Special Interest Groups, IET, IFIP, BCS
Free/Open source software groups	Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation

See also

Information technology portal

• Computability theory (computer science)
• Computer security and Computer insecurity
• List of computer term etymologies
• List of fictional computers
• Pulse computer

Notes

1. ^ In 1946, ENIAC required an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a modern laptop computer may use around 30 W; nearly six thousand times less. "Approximate Desktop & Notebook Power Usage". University of Pennsylvania. http://www.upenn.edu/computing/provider/docs/hardware/powerusage.html. Retrieved 2009-06-20. 
2. ^ Early computers such as Colossus and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100 operations per second. A modern "commodity" microprocessor (as of 2007) can process billions of operations per second, and many of these operations are more complicated and useful than early computer operations. "Intel Core2 Duo Mobile Processor: Features". Intel Corporation. http://www.intel.com/cd/channel/reseller/asmo-na/eng/products/mobile/processors/core2duo_m/feature/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-20. 
3. ^ computer, n., Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.), Oxford University Press, 1989, http://dictionary.oed.com/, retrieved 2009-04-10 
4. ^ "Heron of Alexandria". http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/HeronAlexandria2.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-15. 
5. ^ ^{a b} Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots, History Channel, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8, retrieved 2008-09-06 
6. ^ Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 184, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0
7. ^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
8. ^ The analytical engine should not be confused with Babbage's difference engine which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator.
9. ^ Columbia University Computing History: Herman Hollerith
10. ^ "Alan Turing - Time 100 People of the Century". Time Magazine. http://www.yachtingnet.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html. Retrieved 2009-06-13. "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine" 
11. ^ Spiegel: The inventor of the computer's biography was published
12. ^ "Inventor Profile: George R. Stibitz". National Inventors Hall of Fame Foundation, Inc.. http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/140.html. 
13. ^ Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20 (3): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574. 
14. ^ B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006
15. ^ Lavington 1998, p. 37
16. ^ This program was written similarly to those for the PDP-11 minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. (Digital Equipment Corporation 1972)
17. ^ Attempts are often made to create programs that can overcome this fundamental limitation of computers. Software that mimics learning and adaptation is part of artificial intelligence.
18. ^ It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.
19. ^ Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some minicomputers like the DEC PDP-8 could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.
20. ^ However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An x86-64 compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel 80486. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.
21. ^ High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly by another program called an interpreter.
22. ^ The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Many computers include some instructions that may only be partially interpreted by the control system and partially interpreted by another device. This is especially the case with specialized computing hardware that may be partially self-contained. For example, EDVAC, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that only interpreted four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
23. ^ Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, so the program counters usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.
24. ^ David J. Eck (2000). The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing. A K Peters, Ltd.. p. 54. ISBN 9781568811284. 
25. ^ Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics. CRC Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780824740672. 
26. ^ Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage. (Verma 1988)
27. ^ Donald Eadie (1968). Introduction to the Basic Computer. Prentice-Hall. p. 12. 
28. ^ Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors. Wiley. p. 85. ISBN 9780471050513. 
29. ^ Jerry Peek; Grace Todino, John Strang (2002). Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User. O'Reilly. p. 130. ISBN 9780596002619. 
30. ^ Gillian M. Davis (2002). Noise Reduction in Speech Applications. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780849309496. 
31. ^ However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. (TOP500 2006)
32. ^ Agatha C. Hughes (2000). Systems, Experts, and Computers. MIT Press. p. 161. ISBN 9780262082853. "The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system..." 
33. ^ "A Brief History of the Internet". Internet Society. http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml. Retrieved 2008-09-20. 
34. ^ Most major 64-bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.

References

• ^a  Kempf, Karl (1961). Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers Within the Ordnance Corps. Aberdeen Proving Ground (United States Army). http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/U-S-Ord-61.html. 
• ^a  Phillips, Tony (2000). "The Antikythera Mechanism I". American Mathematical Society. .http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/column/antikytheraI-0400/kyth1.html.^ McCarthy, John, 1999 , “Elaboration tolerance”, Http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/elaboration.html.
  • Logic and Artificial Intelligence (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ From: http://www.livescience.com/humanbiology/060327_neuro_chips.html .
  • This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]
  
  Retrieved 2006-04-05. 
• ^a  Shannon, Claude Elwood (1940). A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/11173. 
• ^a  Digital Equipment Corporation (1972) (PDF). PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook. Maynard, MA: Digital Equipment Corporation. .http://bitsavers.vt100.net/dec/www.computer.museum.uq.edu.au_mirror/D-09-30_PDP11-40_Processor_Handbook.pdf. 
• ^a  Verma, G.; Mielke, N. (1988).^ If you would like to distribute a version of this article, please link back to http://www.mindingtheplanet.net from your version, thanks.
  • This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Available at http://www.theatlantic.com/atlantic/issues/97jul/computer.htm "In the past decade ...
  • Computer Almanac - Numbers About Computers 10 February 2010 13:40 UTC www.cs.cmu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories. IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium. 
• ^a  Meuer, Hans; Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; Dongarra, Jack (2006-11-13). "Architectures Share Over Time". TOP500. .http://www.top500.org/lists/2006/11/overtime/Architectures.^ Hard to do, obviously, but CEV ( http://www.singinst.org/upload/CEV.html ) is one attempt.
  • The Speculist: Artificial Intelligence Archives 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC www.blog.speculist.com [Source type: Original source]
  
  ^ His foundation is at http://www.pfdf.org/ Mayer Spivack Mayer Spivack is my father; he's a brilliant inventor, cognitive scientist, sculptor, designer and therapist.
  • This Blog has Moved to Novaspivack.com: Artificial Intelligence 3 February 2010 14:27 UTC novaspivack.typepad.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ If you don't believe me, go to http://www.srl.org Mark Pauline and company have been doing it for 25 years.
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  Retrieved 2006-11-27. 
• Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, ISBN 0902505018 
• Stokes, Jon (2007). Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and Computer Architecture. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-104-6. 

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