From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cotton bolls ready for harvest
Picking cotton in
Oklahoma, USA, in the 1890s
Cotton is a soft, fluffy, staple
fiber that grows in a form known as a
boll around the
seeds of the
cotton plant, a
shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the
Americas,
India and
Africa. The fiber most often is spun into
yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable
textile, which is the most widely used natural-fiber cloth in
clothing today. The
English name derives from the
Arabic (al) qutn قُطْن , which began to be used circa 1400.
[1]
History
Cotton was first cultivated seven thousand years ago (
5th millennium BC-
4th millennium BC), by the inhabitants of the
Indus Valley Civilization, a civilization that covered a huge swath of the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising today of parts of Eastern Pakistan and Northwestern India.
[2] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the modern Industrialization of
India.
[3] Well before the
Common Era the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the
Mediterranean and beyond.
[4]According to The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition:
[5]"Cotton has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times. It clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, and their use spread to the
Mediterranean countries. In the 1st cent.
Arab traders brought fine muslin and calico to Italy and Spain. The
Moors introduced the cultivation of cotton into Spain in the 9th cent. Fustians and dimities were woven there and in the 14th cent. in Venice and Milan, at first with a linen warp. Little cotton cloth was imported to England before the 15th cent., although small amounts were obtained chiefly for candlewicks. By the 17th century the
East India Company was bringing rare fabrics from India.
Native Americans skillfully spun and wove cotton into fine garments and dyed tapestries. Cotton fabrics found in
Peruvian tombs are said to belong to a pre-Inca culture. In color and texture the ancient Peruvian and Mexican textiles resemble those found in Egyptian tombs."
According to the Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, the earliest cultivation of cotton discovered thus far in the Americas occurred in Mexico, some 8,000 years ago. The indigenous species was
Gossypium hirsutum which is today the most widely planted species of cotton in the world, constituting about 90% of all production worldwide. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa.
[6]In
Peru, cultivation of the indigenous cotton species
Gossypium barbadense was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the
Norte Chico,
Moche and
Nazca. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico in the early 1500s found the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.
During the late
medieval period, cotton became known as an
imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a
plant; noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep.
John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie [
sic]." (See
Vegetable Lamb of Tartary.) This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German
Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool" (
Baum means "tree";
Wolle means "wool"). By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and the
Americas.
India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during British expansion in India and the establishment of
colonial rule during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the
British East India Company, which made cotton processing and manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and were forced, by British-imposed law, to purchase manufactured textiles from Britain.
The advent of the
Industrial Revolution in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738
Lewis Paul and
John Wyatt, of
Birmingham, England, patented the Roller Spinning machine, and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the
spinning jenny in 1764 and
Richard Arkwright's
spinning frame (based on the Roller Spinning Machine) in 1769 enabled British weavers to produce cotton yarn and cloth at much higher rates. From the late eighteenth century onwards, the British city of
Manchester acquired the nickname
"cottonopolis" due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade. Production capacity in Britain and the United States was further improved by the invention of the
cotton gin by the American
Eli Whitney in 1793. Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from colonial plantations, processed into cotton
cloth in the mills of
Lancashire, and then re-exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in
West Africa,
India, and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).
By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species,
Gossypium hirsutum and
Gossypium barbadense), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from plantations in the United States and the
Caribbean. This was also much cheaper as it was produced by unpaid
slaves. By the mid 19th century, "
King Cotton" had become the backbone of the southern American economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of slaves.
During the
American Civil War, American cotton exports slumped due to a
Union blockade on
Southern ports, also because of a strategic decision by the Confederate Government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war, prompting the main purchasers of cotton,
Britain and France, to turn to
Egyptian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations and the Egyptian government of
Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports, sending Egypt into a
deficit spiral that led to the country declaring
bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's annexation by the
British Empire in 1882.
Picking cotton in
Georgia, United States, in 1943
During this time cotton cultivation in the British Empire, especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions the British government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian patriot
Mahatma Gandhi described the process:
- English people buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
- This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.
- The cotton is turned into cloth in Lancashire. You pay shilling wages instead of Indian pennies to your workers. The English worker not only has the advantage of better wages, but the steel companies of England get the profit of building the factories and machines. Wages; profits; all these are spent in England.
- The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.
- The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day. (Fisher 1932 pp 154–156)
In the United States, Southern cotton provided capital for the continuing development of the North. The cotton produced by enslaved African Americans not only helped the South but also enriched Northern merchants. Much of the Southern cotton was transshipped through the northern ports.
Cotton remained a key crop in the southern economy after
emancipation and the end of the civil war in 1865. Across the South,
sharecropping evolved, in which free black farmers and landless white farmers worked on white-owned cotton plantations of the wealthy in return for a share of the profits. Cotton plantations required vast labor forces to hand-pick cotton, and it was not until the 1950s that reliable harvesting machinery was introduced into the South (prior to this, cotton-harvesting machinery had been too clumsy to pick cotton without shredding the fibers). During the early twentieth century, employment in the cotton industry fell as machines began to replace laborers, and the South's rural labor force dwindled during the First and Second World Wars. Today, cotton remains a major export of the southern United States, and a majority of the world's annual cotton crop is of the long-staple American variety.
[8]Tangüis cotton
Main article:
Fermín TangüisIn 1901, Peru's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known as "Cotton wilt" and " "Fusarium wilt" (
Fusarium vasinfectum).
[9] The plant disease, which spread throughout Peru, entered the plant by its roots and worked its way up the stem until the plant was completely dried up.
Fermín Tangüis, a
Puerto Rican agriculturist who lived in Peru, studied some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in
germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed which produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water.
[10] The Tangüis cotton, as it became known, is the variety which is preferred by the Peruvian national textile industry. It constituted 75 percent of all the Peruvian cotton production, both for domestic use and apparel exports. The Tangüis cotton crop was estimated at 225,000
bales that year.
[11]Cultivation
Cotton plowing in
Togo, 1928
Cotton modules in Australia (2007)
Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long
frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall, usually from 600 to 1200 mm (24 to 48 inches).
Soils usually need to be fairly heavy, although the level of
nutrients does not need to be exceptional. In general, these conditions are met within the seasonally dry tropics and subtropics in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but a large proportion of the cotton grown today is cultivated in areas with less rainfall that obtain the water from irrigation. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Planting time in spring in the Northern hemisphere varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June. The area of the United States known as the
South Plains is the largest contiguous cotton-growing region in the world. While dryland (non-irrigated) cotton is successfully grown in this region, consistent yields are only produced with heavy reliance on
irrigation water drawn from the
Ogallala Aquifer.
There are other crops requiring more water, such as
maize. Since cotton is somewhat salt and drought tolerant, this makes it an attractive crop for arid and semi-arid regions. As
water resources get tighter around the world, economies that rely on it face difficulties and conflict, as well as potential environmental problems.
[12][13][14][15][16] For example, improper cropping and irrigation practices have led to
desertification in areas of
Uzbekistan, where cotton is a major export. In the days of the
Soviet Union, the
Aral Sea was tapped for agricultural irrigation, largely of cotton, and now
salination is widespread.
[15][16]Genetic modification
Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of
moths and butterflies,
beetles, and
flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for BT toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the BT protein in the transgenic cotton that they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed
pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to non-insecticide pest management.
Bt cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests, however, such as
plant bugs,
stink bugs,
aphids, etc.; depending on circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides against these. A study done by Cornell researchers on Bt cotton farming in China found other pests necessitated the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton, causing less profit for farmers because of the expense of GM seeds.
[17] The
International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that, worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 67,000 km² in 2002. This is 20% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton. The U.S. cotton crop was 73% GM in 2003.
The initial introduction of GM cotton proved to be a huge success in Australia - the yields were equivalent to the no transgenic varieties and the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction). The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to increases in GM cotton production until today when 90% of the crop is GM.
Cotton has also been genetically modified for resistance to
glyphosate (marketed as
Roundup in North America), an inexpensive and highly effective but broad-spectrum herbicide. Originaly, it was only possible to achieve glyphosate resistance when the plant was young, but with the development of Roundup Ready Flex, it is possible to achieve Glyphosate resistance much later in the growing season.
GM cotton acreage in India continues to grow at a rapid rate increasing from 50,000 hectares in 2002 to 3.8 million hectares in 2006. The total cotton area in India is about 9.0 million hectares (the largest in the world or, about 25% of world cotton area) so GM cotton is now grown on 42% of the cotton area. This makes India the country with the largest area of GM cotton in the world, surpassing China (3.5 million hectares in 2006). The major reasons for this increase is a combination of increased farm income ($225/ha) and a reduction in pesticide use to control the Cotton Bollworm.
Cotton has
gossypol, a toxin that makes it inedible. However, scientists have silenced the gene that produces the toxin, making it a potential food crop.
[18]Organic production
Organic cotton is generally understood as cotton, from non
genetically modified plants, that is certified to be grown without the use of any synthetic agricultural chemicals such as
fertilizers or
pesticides.
[19] Its production also promotes and enhances biodiversity and biological cycles.
[20] United States cotton plantations are required to enforce the National Organic Program (NOP). This institution determines the allowed practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing, and handling of organic crops.
[21][22] As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were produced in 24 countries and worldwide production was growing at a rate of more than 50% per year.
[23]
Pests and weeds
The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as
fertilizers and
insecticides, although a very small number of farmers are moving toward an
organic model of production and organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. These are popular for baby clothes and
diapers. Under most definitions, organic products do not use
genetic engineering.
Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the
boll weevil. Due to the
US Department of Agriculture's highly successful
Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered "
Bt cotton" (which contains a
bacterial gene that codes for a plant-produced
protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as
cotton bollworm and
pink bollworm), has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.
Mechanized harvesting
Offloading freshly harvested cotton into a module builder in
Texas; previously built modules can be seen in the background
Most cotton in the United States, Europe, and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a
cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper, which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton, and usually after application of a chemical
defoliant or the natural defoliation that occurs after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.
Competition from synthetic fibers
The era of manufactured fibers began with the development of
Rayon in France in the 1890s. Rayon is derived from a natural cellulose and cannot be considered synthetic, but requires extensive processing in a manufacturing process and led the less expensive replacement of more naturally derived materials. A succession of new synthetic fibers were introduced by the chemicals industry in the following decades.
Acetate in fiber form was developed in 1924.
Nylon, the first fiber synthesized entirely from petrochemicals, was introduced as a sewing thread by DuPont in 1936, followed by DuPont's
acrylic in 1944. Some garments were created from fabrics based on these fibers, such as women's
hosiery from nylon, but it was not until the introduction of
polyester into the fiber marketplace in the early 1950s that the market for cotton came under threat.
[25] The rapid uptake of polyester garments in the 1960s caused economic hardship in cotton exporting economies, especially in Central American countries such as
Nicaragua where cotton production had boomed tenfold between 1950 and 1965 with the advent of cheap chemical pesticides. Cotton production recovered in the 1970s, but crashed to pre-1960 levels in the early 1990s.
[26]Beginning as a self-help program in the mid-1960s, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program was organized by U.S. cotton producers in response to cotton's steady decline in market share. At that time, producers voted to set up a per-bale assessment system to fund the program, with built-in safeguards to protect their investments. With the passage of the Cotton Research & Promotion Act of 1966, the program joined forces and began battling synthetic competitors and re-establishing markets for cotton. Today, the success of this program has made cotton the best-selling fiber in the U.S. and one of the best-selling fibers in the world.
Administered by the
Cotton Board and conducted by Cotton Incorporated, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program works to greatly increase the demand for and profitability of cotton through various research and promotion activities. It is funded by U.S. cotton producers and importers.
Uses
Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include
terrycloth, used to make highly absorbent bath
towels and
robes;
denim, used to make
blue jeans;
chambray, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "
blue-collar"); and
corduroy,
seersucker, and cotton
twill.
Socks,
underwear, and most
T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets often are made from cotton. Cotton also is used to make yarn used in
crochet and
knitting. Fabric also can be made from recycled or recovered cotton that otherwise would be thrown away during the spinning, weaving, or cutting process. While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with other fibers, including
rayon and
synthetic fibers such as
polyester. It can either be used in knitted or woven fabrics, as it can be blended with elastine to make a stretchier thread for knitted fabrics, and things such as stretch jeans.
The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce
cottonseed oil, which, after refining, can be consumed by humans like any other
vegetable oil. The
cottonseed meal that is left generally is fed to
ruminant livestock; the
gossypol remaining in the meal is toxic to
monogastric animals. Cottonseed hulls can be added to dairy cattle rations for roughage. During the American slavery period, cotton root bark was used in
folk remedies as an
abortifacient, that is, to induce a miscarriage.
[27]Cotton linters are fine, silky fibers which adhere to the seeds of the cotton plant after ginning. These curly fibers typically are less than 1/8 in (3 mm) long. The term also may apply to the longer textile fiber staple lint as well as the shorter fuzzy fibers from some upland species. Linters are traditionally used in the manufacture of paper and as a raw material in the manufacture of
cellulose. In the UK, linters are referred to as "cotton wool". This can also be a refined product (
absorbent cotton in
U.S. usage) which has
medical,
cosmetic and many other practical uses. The first medical use of cotton wool was by
Dr Joseph Sampson Gamgee at the Queen's Hospital (later the General Hospital) in
Birmingham,
England.
Shiny cotton is a processed version of the fiber that can be made into cloth resembling
satin for shirts and suits. However, its hydrophobic property of not easily taking up water makes it unfit for the purpose of bath and dish towels (although examples of these made from shiny cotton are seen).
The term Egyptian cotton refers to the extra long staple cotton grown in Egypt and favored for the luxury and upmarket brands worldwide. During the U.S. Civil War, with heavy European investments, Egyptian-grown cotton became a major alternate source for British textile mills. Egyptian cotton is more durable and softer than American Pima cotton, which is why it is more expensive. Pima cotton is American cotton that is grown in the southwestern states of the U.S.
International trade
The largest producers of cotton, currently (2009), are China and India, with annual production of approximately 34 million bales and 24 million bales, respectively; most of this production being consumed by their respective textile industries. The largest exporters of raw cotton are the United States, with sales of $4.9 billion, and Africa, with sales of $2.1 billion. The total international trade is estimated to be $12 billion. Africa's share of the cotton trade has doubled since 1980. Neither area has a significant domestic textile industry, textile manufacturing having moved to developing nations in Eastern and South Asia such as India and China. In Africa cotton is grown by numerous small holders. Dunavant Enterprises, based in
Memphis, Tennessee, is the leading cotton broker in Africa with hundreds of purchasing agents. It operates
cotton gins in Uganda, Mozambique, and Zambia. In Zambia it often offers loans for seed and expenses to the 180,000 small farmers who grow cotton for it, as well as advice on farming methods.
Cargill also purchases cotton in Africa for export.
The 25,000 cotton growers in the United States are heavily
subsidized at the rate of $2 billion per year. The future of these subsidies is uncertain and has led to anticipatory expansion of cotton brokers' operations in Africa. Dunavant expanded in Africa by buying out local operations. This is only possible in former British colonies and Mozambique; former French colonies continue to maintain tight monopolies, inherited from their former colonialist masters, on cotton purchases at low fixed prices.
[28]Leading producer countries
In India, the states of
Maharashtra (26.63%),
Gujarat (17.96%) and
Andhra Pradesh (13.75%) and also Madhya Pradesh are the leading cotton producing states,
[30] these states have a predominantly tropical wet and dry climate.
Fair trade
Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries.
This has led to an international dispute:
On 27 September 2002 Brazil requested consultations with the US regarding prohibited and actionable subsidies provided to US producers, users and/or exporters of
upland cotton, as well as legislation, regulations, statutory instruments and amendments thereto providing such
subsidies (including export credits), grants, and any other assistance to the US producers, users and exporters of upland cotton.
[33]
On 8 September 2004, the Panel Report recommended that the United States "withdraw" export credit guarantees and payments to domestic user and exporters, and "take appropriate steps to remove the adverse effects or withdraw" the mandatory price-contingent subsidy measures.
[34]In addition to concerns over subsidies, the cotton industries of some countries are criticized for employing child labor and damaging workers' health by exposure to pesticides used in production. The
Environmental Justice Foundation has campaigned against the prevalent use of forced child and adult labor in cotton production in
Uzbekistan, the world's third largest cotton exporter.
[35] The international production and trade situation has led to '
fair trade' cotton clothing and footwear, joining a rapidly growing market for organic clothing, fair fashion or so-called 'ethical fashion'. The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from
Cameroon,
Mali and
Senegal.
[36]Trade
Cotton is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity on 2 different stock exchanges in the United States of America.
- Cotton futures contracts are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under the ticker symbol TT. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, October, & December.[37]
- Cotton #2 futures contracts are traded on the New York Board of Trade (NYBOT) under the ticker symbol CT. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, October, and December.[38]
Critical temperatures
Cotton dries out, becomes hard and brittle and loses all elasticity at temperatures above 25°C (77°F). Extended exposure to light causes similar problems.
A temperature range of 25 °C (77 °F) to 35 °C (95°F) is the optimal range for mold development. At temperatures below 0°C (32 °F), rotting of wet cotton stops. Damaged cotton is sometimes stored at these temperatures to prevent further deterioration.
[39]British standard yarn measures
- 1 thread = 55 inches (about 137 cm)
- 1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yards or about 109 m)
- 1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yards or about 768 m)
- 1 spindle = 18 hanks (15,120 yards or about 13.826 km)
Fibers properties
| Property |
Evaluation |
| Shape |
Fairly uniform in width, 12-20 micrometers; length varies from 1 cm to 6 cm (½ to 2½ inches); typical length is 2.2 cm to 3.3 cm (⅞ to 1¼ inches). |
| Luster |
high |
Tenacity (strength)
Dry
Wet |
3.0-5.0 g/d
3.3-6.0 g/d |
| Resiliency |
low |
| Density |
1.54-1.56 g/cm³ |
Moisture absorption
raw: conditioned
saturation
mercerized: conditioned
saturation |
8.5%
15-25%
8.5-10.3%
15-27%+ |
| Dimensional stability |
good |
Resistance to
acids
alkali
organic solvents
sunlight
microorganisms
insects |
damage, weaken fibers
resistant; no harmful effects
high resistance to most
Prolonged exposure weakens fibers.
Mildew and rot-producing bacteria damage fibers.
Silverfish damage fibers. |
Thermal reactions
to heat
to flame |
Decomposes after prolonged exposure to temperatures of 150˚C or over.
Burns readily. |
The chemical composition of cotton is as follows:
See also
References
- ^ Metcalf, 1999, p. 123.
- ^ Stein, page 47
- ^ Wisseman & Williams, page 127
- ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. cotton.
- ^ "cotton". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.
- ^ The Biology of Gossypium hirsutum L. and Gossypium barbadense L. (cotton)
- ^ Encyclopaedia Islamica Foundation. بنیاد دائره المعارف اسلامی , Retrieved on 28 February 2009; The original Persian text: تاریخچهٔ پنبه در ایران احتمالاً به دوران هخامنشیان بازمی گردد، اما دربارة کاشت پنبه پیش از دورة اسلامی ایران اطلاعات معتبر اندکی در دست است. ] به نوشتة مؤلف حدودالعالم (ح ۳۷۲)، در مرو، ری و ناحیة فارس کشت پنبه رواج داشتهاست (ص ۹۴، ۱۳۰، ۱۴۲). همچنین اشارات متعددی به پنبه در آثار شاعران، بویژه شاهنامة فردوسی (کتاب سوم، ج ۵، ص ۱۴۷۵ـ ۱۴۷۶، کتاب چهارم، ج ۶، ص ۱۹۹۹، ۲۰۰۴) وجود دارد. در قرن هفتم / سیزدهم، مارکوپولو به محصولات عمدة ایران از جمله پنبه اشاره میکند (ج ۱، ص ۸۴) [. ژان شاردن، جهانگرد مشهور فرانسوی در قرن یازدهم / هفدهم، که از ایران دورة صفویه بازدید کرده، وجود کشتزارهای وسیع پنبه را تأیید کردهاست (ج ۲، ص ۷۱۲).
- ^ Stephen Yafa (2004). Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber. Penguin (Non-Classics). pp. 16. ISBN 0-14-303722-6.
- ^ Boletin, (Spanish) Retrieved July 17, 2008
- ^ Peru's Cotton
- ^ Peru Cotton Production and Imports
- ^ Wegerich K. 2002. Natural drought or human-made water scarcity in Uzbekistan? Central Asia and the Caucasus. 2,154–162.
- ^ Pearce, Fred (2004). "9 "A Salty Hell"". Keepers of the Spring. Island Press. pp. 109–122. ISBN 1559636815.
- ^ A.K. Chapagain, A.Y. Hoekstra, H.H.G. Savenije and R. Gautam (1 November 2006). "The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries". Ecological Economics 60 (1): 186–203. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.027.
- ^ a b Mainguet, Monique; René Létolle (1998). "Human-made Desertification in the Aral Sea Basin". The Arid Frontier. Springer. pp. 129–145. ISBN 0792342275.
- ^ a b Waltham, Tony; Ihsan Sholji (2001). "The demise of the Aral Sea – an environmental disaster". Geology Today 17 (6): 218–228. doi:10.1046/j.0266-6979.2001.00319.x.
- ^ First documented case of pest resistance to biotech cotton
- ^ Technology Review
- ^ CCVT Sustainable
- ^ VineYardTeam Econ
- ^ AMSv1
- ^ OrganicConsumers.org
- ^ Organic Trade Association
- ^ Craig Murray. Murder in Samarkand - A British Ambassador's Controversial Defiance of Tyranny in the War on Terror. ISBN 978-1845961947. 2006.
- ^ Fiber History
- ^ Land, Power, and Poverty: Agrarian Transformation and Political Conflict, Charles D. Brockett, ISBN 0813386950, Google.com p. 46
- ^ Liese M. Perrin (2001). "Resisting Reproduction: Reconsidering Slave Contraception in the Old South". Journal of American Studies (Cambridge University Press) 35: 255-274. doi:10.1017/S0021875801006612. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27556967.
- ^ "Out of Africa: Cotton and Cash", article by Usain Bolt in the New York Times, 14 January 2007
- ^ a b National Cotton Council of America - Rankings
- ^ "Three largest producing states of important crops" (PDF). http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2001-02/chapt2002/tab115.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
- ^ Jasper Womach (2004). [www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL32442.pdf "Cotton Production and Support in the United States"]. CRS Report for Congress. www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL32442.pdf.
- ^ Siebert, JB et al. (1996). "26". Cotton production manual. ANR Publications. p. 366. http://books.google.com/books?id=TllcVXmnLlEC&pg=PA366&lpg=PA366&dq=.
- ^ United States — Subsidies on Upland Cotton, World Trade Organization, accessed 2 October 2006
- ^ United States - Subsidies on Upland Cotton, World Trade Organization, accessed 2 October 2006
- ^ The Environmental Justice Foundation. "Environmental Justice Foundation: Reports on Cotton" retrieved February 22nd, 2010
- ^ Market: Cotton, UNCTAD, accessed 2 October 2006
- ^ NYMEX Cotton Futures Contract Overview via Wikinvest
- ^ NYBOT Cotton#2 Futures Contract Overview via Wikinvest
- ^ Transportation Information Service of Germany, Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. (GDV), Berlin, Transport Information Service (TIS) - Cargo, Packaging, Containers, Loss prevention, Marine insurance, 2002-2006
- Fisher, F.B., 1932 That Strange Little Brown Man Gandhi, New York: Ray Long & Richard Smith, Inc.,
- USDA - Cotton Trade
- Faragher, J.M., 2006 Out Of Many, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.,
Further reading
- Moseley, W.G. and L.C. Gray (eds). (2008). Hanging by a Thread: Cotton, Globalization and Poverty in Africa. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press and Nordic Africa Press. ISBN 978-0-89680-260-5.
- Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631205462.
- Adas, Michael (January 2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320.
- Ensminger, Audrey H. and Konlande, James E. Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, Second Edition. Published by CRC Press, 1993. ISBN 0849389801, 9780849389801
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