From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.^ In other embodiments, the kits comprise the conjugates described herein, with instructions for using the conjugate to detect affinity of anindividual's anti-ds DNA antibodies for the conjugate.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, that are necessary for the proper functioning of an organism.
^ "During an organisms growth phase from embryo to adult some of the DNAs instructions remain inactive until the requisite level of maturity has been reached, at which point they are stimulated into action."
.^ DNA DNA is a molecule that encodes genetic information.- Understanding DNA 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.dnahelp.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA is a highly charged molecule, and can be view, to a first approximation, as a long polyelectrolyte with a large negative.- BC Online: 4A - Structure of DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC employees.csbsju.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Overview of Procedure DNA is the main carrier of genetic information in living organisms.
.^ In other embodiments, the kits comprise the conjugates described herein, with instructions for using the conjugate to detect affinity of anindividual's anti-ds DNA antibodies for the conjugate.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, that are necessary for the proper functioning of an organism.
^ A "double-stranded DNA epitope" or "dsDNA epitope" is any chemical moiety which exhibits specific binding to an anti-double-stranded DNA antibody and as such includes molecules which comprise such epitope(s).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ DNA information is carried by four bases.
^ In other embodiments, the kits comprise the conjugates described herein, with instructions for using the conjugate to detect affinity of anindividual's anti-ds DNA antibodies for the conjugate.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ It is further understood that a different polynucleotide (for example, in terms of size and/or sequence) other than the one that is to be, was, or will be used in treatment, as long as both polynucleotides exhibit equivalent (or convertible)binding affinities to anti-ds DNA antibodies from an individual.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ DNA is the long two stranded chain.
^ A few contacts with the DNA backbone are made by two helices.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
These two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore
anti-parallel.
.^ There are four types of bases.- Gene definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of popular medical terms easily defined on MedTerms 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.medterms.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A nucleoside is one of the four DNA bases covalently attached to the C1' position of a sugar.
^ And, again, the bases are attached to the first carbon of the sugar molecule.
.^ The sequence of these four bases encodes the information and is the genetic code of all of us ( more information ...- Home - DNA rainbow 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.dna-rainbow.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ DNA information is carried by four bases.
^ Scientists use these base sequences to locate the position of genes on chromosomes and to construct a map of the entire human genome.- DNA Molecule - Picture - ninemsn Encarta 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC au.encarta.msn.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Transcribe the DNA code to RNA code, then translate the RNA code to an amino acid sequence.- DNA Structure and Function 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC biology.clc.uc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Useful when sequence information is limited .- Ambion, Inc. - Probe Labeling Chart 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.ambion.com [Source type: Reference]
^ DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn then contains the codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to make proteins.
.^ Transcribe the DNA code to RNA code, then translate the RNA code to an amino acid sequence.- DNA Structure and Function 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC biology.clc.uc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ This process is called DNA fingerprinting.
^ Stretches of DNA (or stretches of chromosomes) code for genes.
.^ The structure of the zipper-type proteins may be split into two parts: the dimerization and DNA-binding regions.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ But unknowns to you there are things called parasitic genes that reproduce by inserting copies of themselves into new locations in the chromosomes.
^ Genome analysis will not only facilitate identification of such proteins, but will allow us to determine functionally important target sites on the DNA and, in combination with structural data, how higher-order oligomers are formed within the cell.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ This process is called DNA fingerprinting.
^ All of the DNA in a cell is found in individual pieces, called chromosomes.- DNA - an introduction and overview 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.eurekascience.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ How many times is a cell's DNA replicated before it divides?
.^ In some embodiments, the ds DNA epitope is a polynucleotide, such as 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO:1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[1] In contrast,
prokaryotes (
bacteria and
archaea) store their DNA only in the
cytoplasm.
.^ DNA is associated with proteins: histones and non histone proteins, to form the chromatin.
^ In simple terms, DNA controls the production of proteins within the cell.- DNA - The Double Helix 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC biologycorner.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
Properties
DNA is a long
polymer made from repeating units called
nucleotides.
[2][3][4] .^ The final concentration of the ct DNA preparation was determined spectrophotometrically assuming an extinction coefficient of 33 .mu.g per 1 OD unit at 260 nM. .- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[5] .^ Accordingly, the invention includes kits containing (i.e.,comprising) one or more dsDNA epitopes, preferably polynucleotides (preferably, double stranded (ds) DNA molecules) comprising an epitope which binds to an anti-ds DNA antibody from an individual (and the epitope-containing polynucleotide binds to ananti-ds DNA antibody from an individual).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The amino-terminal domain contains five helices and the large carboxy-terminal domain is primary a helical with a small ß sheet packing against a nine-helix domain (Figure 4e .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ This group, which only contains the TATA box-binding protein family, is characterized by the use a large ß-sheet structures to bind the DNA (Figure 5 ).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
For instance, the largest
human chromosome, chromosome number 1, is approximately 220 million
base pairs long.
[6]In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together.
[7][8] .^ Two pairs of conserved histidine and cysteine residues in the a helix and second ß strand coordinate a single zinc ion.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The DNA-binding region of the E2 protein (Figure 4a ) is about 85 residues long and consists of four ß strands and two interstrand a helices.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The structure of the finger is characterized by a short two-stranded antiparallel ß sheet followed by an a helix (Figure 2a ).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Line 4 : Each DNA molecule is a long two stranded chain.
^ The nucleotides joined together to form a chain.
^ In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to that in the other strand.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The complexes were defined as any structure containing one or more protein chains and at least one double-stranded DNA of more than four base-pairs (bp) in length.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The prokaryotic enzymes in the group (for example, Fok I endonuclease, 1fok) which function as monomers possess more than one motif in a single subunit.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA, this polymer is called a
polynucleotide.
[9].^ What sugar is DNA made of?- WikiAnswers - What is DNA made of 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC wiki.answers.com [Source type: General]
^ The sugars and phosphates in the "backbone" of a DNA strand are held together by ________.- Biology: Life on Earth 6E Chapter 9 -- Multiple Choice 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC cwx.prenhall.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The strands of the DNA molecule are made-up of two molecules, the sugar and the phosphate molecules.- Dynamic model of the DNA molecule - US Patent 6036497 Description 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC www.patentstorm.us [Source type: Reference]
[10] The sugar in DNA is
2-deoxyribose, which is a
pentose (five-
carbon) sugar.
.^ The nucleotides joined together to form a chain.
^ A backbone or scaffold is provided by groups of atoms that form phosphate and deoxyribose.
^ The deoxyribose sugars are joined at both the 3'-hydroxyl and 5'-hydroxyl groups to phosphate groups in ester links, also known as "phosphodiester" bonds.- Introduction to DNA Structure 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.blc.arizona.edu [Source type: Reference]
.^ The DNA strands are assembled in the 5 to 3 direction and,.- Definition: DNA from Online Medical Dictionary 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC dvfreelancer.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Because these bonds are asymmetric, a strand of DNA has a 'direction'.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The first major step for the DNA Replication to take place is the breaking of hydrogen bonds between bases of the two antiparallel strands.
.^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ The proteins consist of an incomplete five-stranded ß-barrel capped by an a helix abutting three ß strands (Figure 6e ).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Each subunit consists of a seven-strand antiparallel ß barrel; one opening of this barrel forms a dimer interface with the equivalent segment of the other subunit while the other end points towards the DNA. .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The zinc-coordinating motif is found in the DNA-binding domain and is characterized by two antiparallel a helices capped by loops at their amino-terminal ends.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar
ribose in RNA.
[8]
.^ Detection and measurement of indicators of efficacy are generally based on measurement of anti-double-stranded DNA antibody and/or clinical symptoms associated with SLE, which are known in the art.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[11] Animated version at File:DNA orbit animated.gif.
.^ Within the DNA double helix, A forms 2 hydrogen bonds with T on the opposite strand, and G forms 3 hyrdorgen bonds with C on the opposite strand.
^ Two and three hydrogen bonds are formed in A - T and G - C base pairs, respectively.- An Introduction to DNA Structure 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.callutheran.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ What is the DNA double helix?- genome.gov | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.genome.gov [Source type: Academic]
- DNA - WikiGenetics 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.wikigenetics.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Four different nucleotide bases occur in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
^ This is a molecular kit to make open models of the 4 individual bases present in DNA, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine.
^ One of the biggest puzzles was that although the proportion of these bases varied from one DNA to another, it was always found that the number of A = T, and G = C. .
These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for
adenosine monophosphate.
.^ The base, however, can be one of four bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine.- Dynamic model of the DNA molecule - US Patent 6036497 Description 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC www.patentstorm.us [Source type: Reference]
^ Guanine is so, adenine la and cytosine do.- DNA Makes Sweet Music! - CBS News 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cbsnews.com [Source type: General]
^ Adenine bonds to thymine and guanine bonds to cytosine.
[8] .^ A major difference between DNA and RNA is that DNA contains thymine, but not uracil, while RNA contains uracil but not thymine.
^ BASE PAIRING RULE For RNA: ( Remember that uracil replaces thymine) .
^ Pyrimidines - have a single ring on their nitrogenous base: .
.^ Cytosine (C) - found in both DNA and RNA .
^ Nucleotide : A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine in DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in RNA), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA).
^ A fifth pyrimidine base, uracil (U), replaces thymine in RNA. Uracil is normally only found in DNA as a breakdown product of cytosine, but bacterial viruses contain uracil in their DNA. [22] In contrast, following synthesis of certain RNA molecules, many uracils are converted to thymines.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The terms "polynucleotide" and "nucleic acid", used interchangeably herein, refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[12]
Grooves
.^ Each subunit consists of a seven-strand antiparallel ß barrel; one opening of this barrel forms a dimer interface with the equivalent segment of the other subunit while the other end points towards the DNA. .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The MetJ repressor binds DNA as a dimer (Figure 6a ), each subunit comprising a helical bundle and a single ß strand; the strands from each subunit form the antiparallel sheet for DNA-binding (colored red).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The IRF DNA-binding region has an a/ß architecture consisting of a cluster of three a helices flanked on one side by a mixed four-stranded ß sheet (Figure 1m ).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Fingers bind adjacent 3 bp subsites by inserting the a helix in the major groove, and the recognition pattern between the helix and DNA is well characterized.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Conserved UDG residues in loop regions contact the DNA, with the loop between sheet 4 and helix 8 inserting into the DNA minor groove.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The amino-terminal arm and second a helix from D1 bind in the major groove and a loop preceding this recognition helix is found in the minor groove.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ In other embodiments, valency platforms may be used which, when conjugated, provide an average valency (i.e., these platforms are not precisely chemically defined in terms of their valency).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Multiple iterations of these oligomers may be ligated in tandem to provide for multicopy replication.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ These polynucleotides may be designed to have appropriate termini for ligation into specificrestriction sites.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
As the strands are not directly opposite each other, the grooves are unequally sized.
.^ Jointly the domains form a clamp around the DNA, inserting a helices into both the major and minor grooves [ 45 ].- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The recognition helix of the HTH motif is bound in the major groove and other a helices make DNA backbone contacts.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Like those of leucine zippers, the dimerization helices interact with each other in a coiled-coil arrangement and the DNA-binding helices are inserted into the DNA major groove.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
[13] .^ It presents a major groove and a minor groove.
^ II.2.2 Major groove and minor groove .
^ Most of these interactions occur in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ While the interaction on the major groove side is distinct for the direction of the base pair (e.g.
^ The major groove is the site where most protein-DNA interactions occur.- DNA and RNA structures 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.whatislife.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Double-stranded DNA Viruses.- Double-stranded DNA Viruses 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC tolweb.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[14] .^ While achieving a close fit between the a helix and major groove, there is enough flexibility to allow both the protein and DNA to adopt distinct conformations, resulting in multispecific complementarity.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ In contrast to the two families above, the integration host factor forces an enormous distortion in the DNA by inserting a ß hairpin from each subunit in the minor groove (red in Figure 6c ).- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ In contrast to many protein families, the a helix binds base and backbone groups from the DNA minor groove [ 51 ].- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
Base pairing
.^ Each type of base on one strand of DNA forms a bond with just one type of base on the other strand, called 'complementary base pairing '.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ "On any given day, any one of the four could have beaten the others; it was just a question of to whom the day would go that particular day."- Top Chef | Bravo TV Official Site 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.bravotv.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The recognition sequence is often a six base pair palindromic sequence (the top DNA strand from 5' to 3' is the same as the bottom DNA strand from 5' to 3'), but others recognize four or even eight base pair sequences.- Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA-Student Handout 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC biotech.biology.arizona.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ This pairing is called complementary base pairing .
^ These pairings also referred as complementary base pairs.- science tips 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC rpdp.net [Source type: Academic]
^ A pairs with T and C pairs with G to form units called base pairs .
.^ Note that the C-G pair has three hydrogen bonds while the A-T pair has only two, which keeps them from pairing wrong.- DNA Structure and Function 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC biology.clc.uc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The nucleotides joined together to form a chain.
^ The double helix is held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Hydrogen bonds can be broken and rejoined quite easily, so the two strands of DNA in a double helix can be pulled apart like a zipper, either by mechanical force or by high temperatures.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ High ionic strength, however, reduces non covalent interaction mediated by hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions.
^ As your students correctly join the nucleotides, they will "feel" hydrogen bonding.
.^ Hydrogen bonds can be broken and rejoined quite easily, so the two strands of DNA in a double helix can be pulled apart like a zipper, either by mechanical force or by high temperatures.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA double helix 7-038 .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ What is the DNA double helix?- genome.gov | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.genome.gov [Source type: Academic]
- DNA - WikiGenetics 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.wikigenetics.org [Source type: Academic]
[15] .^ DNA double helix 7-038 .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ What is the DNA double helix?- genome.gov | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.genome.gov [Source type: Academic]
- DNA - WikiGenetics 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.wikigenetics.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for this replication.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ That it had a specific base pairing.- DNA double helix Watson Crick Wilkins Franklin 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.ba-education.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ These pairings also referred as complementary base pairs.- science tips 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC rpdp.net [Source type: Academic]
[3]
.^ Also G-C pairs form three hydrogen bonds, whereas A-T pairs have only two.
^ The bonds between G-C base pairs and A-T base pairs are called, hydrogen bonds.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ II.2.1 Hydrogen bounds: bases pairing .
.^ The bonds between G-C base pairs and A-T base pairs are called, hydrogen bonds.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Complementary base pairs (e.g., adenine and thymine) that are joined by hydrogen bonds .- Biology: Life on Earth 6E Chapter 9 -- Multiple Choice 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC cwx.prenhall.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Also G-C pairs form three hydrogen bonds, whereas A-T pairs have only two.
Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines.
.^ Note that the C-G pair has three hydrogen bonds while the A-T pair has only two, which keeps them from pairing wrong.- DNA Structure and Function 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC biology.clc.uc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Bp : See base pair.
^ The bonds between G-C base pairs and A-T base pairs are called, hydrogen bonds.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Patients receiving this amount of conjugate, who had an initial K.sub.D' of less than about 0.8, displayed more than about two-fold lower hospitalizations due to this disorder.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ An antibody "specifically binds" to a target if it binds with greater affinity,avidity, more readily, and/or with greater duration than it binds to other substances.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Both proteins approach the minor groove, and the DNA-recognition regions reach around the side of the DNA to contact bases in the major groove using a pair of loops.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
[16] .^ Line 4 : Each DNA molecule is a long two stranded chain.
^ Dynamics of the B-A transition of DNA double helices.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
^ With each of the 6 corners there are then associated two strands of DNA., which makes 12.- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
[17] .^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ As clearly indicated in the definition of "antibody" provided herein, a "anti-double-stranded DNA antibody" encompasses any fragment(s) that exhibits this requisitefunctional (i.e., specific binding to dsDNA) property, such as fragments that contain the variable region, such as Fab fragments.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The treatment entails administration of a conjugate comprising a non-immunogenic valency platform molecule and at least two double stranded DNA epitopes, such as DNA molecules, which bind to anti-DNA antibodies from the patient.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[18] In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the temperature required to break the hydrogen bonds, their
melting temperature (also called
Tm value).
.^ The strands of the DNA molecule are made-up of two molecules, the sugar and the phosphate molecules.- Dynamic model of the DNA molecule - US Patent 6036497 Description 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC www.patentstorm.us [Source type: Reference]
^ Figure 1: The DNA molecule showing base pairing.- science tips 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC rpdp.net [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA - double helix .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
.^ These are important times; more so than any other time in history.- DNA Activation Music - DNA Recoding - DNA Restranding - Activate Your DNA through Sound 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.activateyourdna.com [Source type: General]
^ Single-stranded DNA and repair of mutations .- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
^ These molecules have no single shape, but some conformations are more stable than others.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[19]
Sense and antisense
.^ DNA is copied into RNA by RNA polymerases .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ RNA is used in translation when the mRNA is "translated" into a protein.- The DNA double helix must unwind and separate into two strands so that one strand can assemble the proper 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC askville.amazon.com [Source type: General]
^ Translation: DNA to mRNA to Protein .- DNA Transcription | Learn Science at Scitable 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
[20] .^ The sequence on the opposite strand is complementary to the sense sequence and is called the "antisense" sequence.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Some viruses blur the distinction between sense and antisense, because certain sequences of their genomes do double duty, encoding one protein when read 5' to 3' along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand.- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
^ A set of two bonded nucleotides on opposite strands of DNA. There are two possible base pairs: C-G and A-T. These letters are used as shorthand for the sequences of fragments of DNA e.g.
Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear.
[21] .^ Beta proteins are involved in gene expression regulation.
^ Regulation of gene expression .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A gene has about one thousand to several million base pairs.- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
[22]
.^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Preferably, the dsDNA epitopesare polynucleotides, said polynucleotide preferably comprising, consisting essentially of or consisting of the double stranded DNA sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The method of claim 10, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[23] .^ The DNA strands are assembled in the 5 to 3 direction and,.- Definition: DNA from Online Medical Dictionary 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC dvfreelancer.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to that in the other strand.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Some viruses blur the distinction between sense and antisense, because certain sequences of their genomes do double duty, encoding one protein when read 5' to 3' along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand.- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
In
bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription,
[24] while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome.
[25]
Supercoiling
DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called
DNA supercoiling.
.^ In its "relaxed" state, a DNA strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted, the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA double stranded state is actually its "resting state".
^ The double helix is itself twisted.
[26] .^ If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix (positive supercoiling), and the bases are held more tightly together.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The two strands of a DNA double helix are held together by ________.
^ Each strand of the DNA molecule is held together at its base by a weak bond.- DNA 101 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC blairdna.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ If they are twisted in the opposite direction (negative supercoiling) the bases come apart more easily.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The conformation of a DNA molecule depends on its sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, and also solution conditions, such as the concentration of metal ions.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A DNA segment with excess or insufficient helical twisting is referred to, respectively, as positively or negatively "supercoiled".- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by
enzymes called
topoisomerases.
[27] .^ Proofreading corrects errors made during the DNA replication process.
^ DNA during replication.
^ DNA can be 'twisted' in a process called DNA supercoiling .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[28]
From left to right, the structures of A, B and Z DNA
Alternate DNA structures
.^ Preferably, the polynucleotide is DNA. As used herein, "DNA" includes not only bases A, T, C, and G, but also includes any of their analogs or modified forms of these bases, such as methylated nucleotides, internucleotide modifications such asuncharged linkages and thioates, use of sugar analogs, and modified and/or alternative backbone structures, such as polyamides.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[10] The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal
ions, as well as the presence of
polyamines in solution.
[29]
.^ The above analysis, and that further described in Sem et al.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The term "circulating anti-double-stranded DNA antibody", as used herein, intends an anti-double-stranded DNA antibody which is not bound to a double-stranded DNA epitope on and/or in a biological sample, i.e., free antibody.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The invention thus provides screening based on any of a number of dsDNA epitopes contemplated for use in treatment.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[32] .^ It should be understood that it is not intended that the invention be limited by this belief and that theduplexes may, upon more conclusive analysis assume Z-DNA and/or A-DNA type helical structures.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[7]
.^ Transformants are identified by standard markers and are grown under conditions that favor DNA replication.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular
paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder.
[35][36]
Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove.
.^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ In addition, a double-strandedpolynucleotide can be obtained from the single stranded polynucleotide product of chemical synthesis either by synthesizing the complementary strand and annealing the strands under appropriate conditions, or by synthesizing the complementary strand denovo using a DNA polymerase with an appropriate primer.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The polynucleotides may be isolated from the other DNA of the cell/microorganism by treatment with restriction enzymes andconventional size fractionation (e.g., agarose gel, Sephadex.TM. column).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[37][38] Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by
methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the
Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a
left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form.
[39] .^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA-binding proteins .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA binding proteins .
[40]
DNA quadruplex formed by
telomere repeats.
.^ The backbone of thepolynucleotide can comprise sugars and phosphate groups (as may typically be found in RNA or DNA), or modified or substituted sugar or phosphate groups.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[41]
Quadruplex structures
.^ DNA is linear and read from start to end.- DNA seen through the eyes of a coder 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC ds9a.nl [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In its packaged form, DNA is called a chromosome .
^ At the ends of the linear chromosomes, specialized regions called telomeres allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The polynucleotides may be isolated from the other DNA of the cell/microorganism by treatment with restriction enzymes andconventional size fractionation (e.g., agarose gel, Sephadex.TM. column).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[42] These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the
DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected.
[43] .^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The method of claim 1, wherein said polynucleotides comprise single stranded sequences.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Alternatively, pairs of complementary single-stranded polynucleotide chains up to about 70 bases in length are readily prepared using commercially available DNA synthesizers and then annealed to form duplexes by conventional procedures.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[44]
.^ One of the four base molecules present in DNA. .
^ Similar DNA structures may be produced by DNA with different nucleotide sequences.- Insertion site preferences of the P transposable element in Drosophila melanogaster 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The structure of DNA overstretched from the 5'5' ends differs from the structure of DNA overstretched from the 3'3' ends.- PDBsum entry: 3cmv 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.ebi.ac.uk [Source type: Academic]
- PDBsum entry: 3cmt 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.ebi.ac.uk [Source type: Academic]
.^ Preferably, the polynucleotide is DNA. As used herein, "DNA" includes not only bases A, T, C, and G, but also includes any of their analogs or modified forms of these bases, such as methylated nucleotides, internucleotide modifications such asuncharged linkages and thioates, use of sugar analogs, and modified and/or alternative backbone structures, such as polyamides.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[45] These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and
chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit.
[46] .^ Other structures can also be formed, and the central set of four bases can come from either one folded strand, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Definition: The basic structural unit of DNA. Context: Each strand of a DNA molecule is a linear arrangement of nucleotides, which are each composed of one sugar, one phosphate, and one nitrogenous base.
^ In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick determined that the structure of DNA is a double-helix polymer, a spiral consisting of two DNA strands wound around each other.- DNA (chemical compound) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Lymph node A structure the size of a bean that contains large numbers of lymphocytes and is connected to other lymph nodes by small channels called lymphatics.- Leukemia & Lymphoma Society - Disease Page Definitions 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.leukemia-lymphoma.org [Source type: Academic]
^ These proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem loops or being degraded by nucleases .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The presence in Mfd of the highly conserved TRG motif forming the helical hairpin and adjacent loop structures in RecG suggests that these two enzymes may have very similar translocation motors derived from a common ancestor.- A model for dsDNA translocation revealed by a structural motif common to RecG and Mfd proteins : Article : The EMBO Journal 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Single-stranded DNA and repair of mutations .- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA-binding proteins .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA binding proteins .
[47] .^ Single-stranded DNA and repair of mutations .- fUSION Anomaly. DNA 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC fusionanomaly.net [Source type: Academic]
^ Two strands of DNA are held together in the shape of a double helix by the bonds between base pairs.
^ Dynamics of the B-A transition of DNA double helices.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
This
triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or
D-loop.
[45]
 |
 |
| Single branch |
Multiple branches |
Branched DNA can form networks containing multiple branches.
Branched DNA
.^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Accordingly, the invention includes kits containing (i.e.,comprising) one or more dsDNA epitopes, preferably polynucleotides (preferably, double stranded (ds) DNA molecules) comprising an epitope which binds to an anti-ds DNA antibody from an individual (and the epitope-containing polynucleotide binds to ananti-ds DNA antibody from an individual).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ In a preferred embodiment, the dsDNA epitope (such as a polynucleotide, for example, double stranded DNA) is biotinylated.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[48] Branched DNA can be used in
nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on
uses in technology below.
Chemical modifications
Structure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group.
Deamination converts 5-methylcytosine into thymine.
Base modifications
.^ DNA packaging: The folding of an organism's DNA molecule into a compact, orderly structure that fits within the limited space of a CELL or VIRUS PARTICLE. MeSH 2004 .
^ A technique called electrophoresis is used to obtain DNA profiles, relying on sections of our DNA The structure of DNA is illustrated .- Definition: DNA from Online Medical Dictionary 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC dvfreelancer.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The expression of genes is influenced by the chromatin structure of a chromosome, and regions of heterochromatin (with little or no gene expression) correlate with the methylation of cytosine .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ In contrast, FIG. 17 shows the entire patient population pool (i.e., the "intent to treat" population) which contains both low and high affinity patients.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
For example, cytosine methylation, produces
5-methylcytosine, which is important for
X-chromosome inactivation.
[49] The average level of methylation varies between organisms - the worm
Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while
vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine.
[50] Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can
deaminate to leave a thymine base, methylated cytosines are therefore particularly prone to
mutations.
[51] .^ Preferably, the polynucleotide is DNA. As used herein, "DNA" includes not only bases A, T, C, and G, but also includes any of their analogs or modified forms of these bases, such as methylated nucleotides, internucleotide modifications such asuncharged linkages and thioates, use of sugar analogs, and modified and/or alternative backbone structures, such as polyamides.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[53][54]
Damage
DNA can be damaged by many sorts of
mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include
oxidizing agents,
alkylating agents and also high-energy
electromagnetic radiation such as
ultraviolet light and
X-rays.
.^ "Bipyrimidine photoproducts rather than oxidative lesions are the main type of DNA damage involved in the genotoxic effect of solar ultraviolet radiation".- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ SOS induction could not elicit iSDR Homologous recombination-dependent initiation of DNA replication from DNA damage-inducible origins in Escherichia coli.- WikiGenes - recA - DNA strand exchange and recombination... 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.wikigenes.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Mutagens are agents which can produce genetic mutations - these are alterations of one DNA base to another base.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing
thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases.
[56] .^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Preferably, the polynucleotide is DNA. As used herein, "DNA" includes not only bases A, T, C, and G, but also includes any of their analogs or modified forms of these bases, such as methylated nucleotides, internucleotide modifications such asuncharged linkages and thioates, use of sugar analogs, and modified and/or alternative backbone structures, such as polyamides.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ This is done, for example, by conjugating the polynucleotide to the valency platform molecule at apredetermined site on the polynucleotide chain such that the polynucleotide forms a pendant chain of at least about 20 base pairs measured from the conjugating site to the free (unattached) end of the chain.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[57] .^ Preferred polymers are based on polyethylene glycols (PEGs) having a molecularweight of about 200 to about 8,000.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[58] .^ These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA,genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Preferably, the dsDNA epitopesare polynucleotides, said polynucleotide preferably comprising, consisting essentially of or consisting of the double stranded DNA sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[59]Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called
intercalating. Most intercalators are
aromatic and planar molecules, and include
Ethidium bromide,
daunomycin, and
doxorubicin.
.^ Each DNA is a double stranded helix where the strands are linked by hydrogen bonds (Base Pairs) between guamine & cytosine, thymine & adenine.- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
^ DNA - double helix .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ DNA double helix 7-038 .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
.^ These structural modifications inhibit transcription and replication processes, causing both toxicity and mutations.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A number of environmental agents such as radiation (UV, X-rays, radioactive elements) and chemicals (pesticides, cigarette smoke) can cause mutations (changes) in DNA. .
^ The configuration of the DNA molecule is highly stable, allowing it to act as a template for the replication of new DNA molecules, as well as for the production (transcription) of the related RNA ( ribonucleic acid ) molecule.- DNA (chemical compound) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Academic]
As a result, DNA intercalators are often
carcinogens, and
Benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide,
acridines,
aflatoxin and
ethidium bromide are well-known examples.
[60][61][62] .^ In other embodiments, the kits comprise the conjugates described herein, with instructions for using the conjugate to detect affinity of anindividual's anti-ds DNA antibodies for the conjugate.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The polynucleotides may be isolated from the other DNA of the cell/microorganism by treatment with restriction enzymes andconventional size fractionation (e.g., agarose gel, Sephadex.TM. column).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Other literature describes methods which may be used in the treatment of SLE, including methods of reducing levels of circulating antibodies by inducing B cell tolerance, including, but not limited to, U.S. Pat.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[63]Biological functions
.^ The DNA is usually in linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ In prokaryotes, chromosomal DNA is circular, and the entire genome is carried on one chromosome.
^ Another way of reducing genome size is seen in some viruses that contain linear or circular single-stranded DNA. [36] .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Human DNA has 46 chromosomes as shown in Figure 3, which is a human karyotype.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The diploid human genome has 46 chromosomes.
^ Human DNA is about 3 billion "base" pairs long.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[64] The information carried by DNA is held in the
sequence of pieces of DNA called
genes.
Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing.
.^ DNA polymerases copy DNA sequences.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA is copied into RNA by RNA polymerases .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Some DNA sequences encode important information for the cell.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching
protein sequence in a process called
translation which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides.
.^ DNA can be 'twisted' in a process called DNA supercoiling .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ When cells divide, the genetic information must be duplicated to produce two daughter copies of DNA in a process called DNA replication .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The DNA contains the genetic information of the cell.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ There are many interactions that happen between DNA and other molecules to coordinate its functions.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ "Genomic DNA methylation: the mark and its mediators".- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This topic has been covered in detail elsewhere on this website so there is no reason to repeat the information here.
Genes and genomes
.^ In eukaryotes, DNA is located mainly in the cell nucleus (there are also small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts).- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The mitochondria are organelles located outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm of the cell.
^ The DNA in the cell nucleus has a spiral structure.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the
nucleoid.
[65] The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its
genotype.
.^ Gene--The fundamental and functional unit of heredity.
^ Stated another way, any character that acts as a signpost or signal of the presence or location of a gene or heredity characteristic in an individual in a population.
^ Regions of DNA sequence that have patterns that are characteristic of protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, allowing researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products in an organism.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
Genes contain an
open reading frame that can be transcribed, as well as
regulatory sequences such as
promoters and
enhancers, which control the transcription of the open reading frame.
.^ In many species, only a small fraction of the genome encodes protein: only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, while over 50% consists of non-coding repetitive sequences .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Despite the difference in total size, the panda genome contains an estimated 21,000 genes that encode proteins, a number similar to that of humans.- Dna | Wired Science | Wired.com 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.wired.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Otherwise, the sequence is unique to RecG and provides a signature motif that has enabled us to identify RecG-like proteins encoded in the nuclear genomes of Arabidopsis thalania and rice.- A model for dsDNA translocation revealed by a structural motif common to RecG and Mfd proteins : Article : The EMBO Journal 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ The following are non-limiting examples of polynucleotides: a gene or gene fragment, exons, introns, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, ribozymes, cDNA, recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides, plasmids, vectors, isolated DNA of any sequence,isolated RNA of any sequence, nucleic acid probes, and primers.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The method of claim 2, wherein said double stranded DNA consists of the sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Preferably, the dsDNA epitopesare polynucleotides, said polynucleotide preferably comprising, consisting essentially of or consisting of the double stranded DNA sequence 5'-GTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 1).- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
[66] The reasons for the presence of so much
non-coding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in
genome size, or
C-value, among species represent a long-standing puzzle known as the "
C-value enigma."
[67] However, DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional
non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the
regulation of gene expression.
[68]
.^ Some non-coding DNA sequences are now known to have a structural role in chromosomes.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Quadruplex DNA: sequence, topology and structure .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A study examined 5 polymorphic Alu Chromosomal abnormalities in which a DNA sequences are inserted into genes, disrupting the normal structure and function of those genes.- DNA Evidence and Molecular Genetics Disprove the Book of Mormon 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.godandscience.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ In particular, telomeres and centromeres contain few genes, but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A study examined 5 polymorphic Alu Chromosomal abnormalities in which a DNA sequences are inserted into genes, disrupting the normal structure and function of those genes.- DNA Evidence and Molecular Genetics Disprove the Book of Mormon 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.godandscience.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The definition of gene is evolving (and lengthening) as we tease apart the incredible complexity of biological and molecular processes and discover that "junk DNA" has important regulatory functions.
[43][70] .^ An abundant form of non-coding DNA in humans are pseudogenes , which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation; [10] these are usually just molecular 'fossils', but they can provide the raw genetic material for new genes.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Approximately 1.5% of human DNA codes for protein.
^ Changes in the DNA code are called mutations .
[71] These sequences are usually just molecular
fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of
gene duplication and
divergence.
[72]
Transcription and translation
A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the
phenotype of an organism.
.^ Within most (but not all) genes, the nucleotides define a messenger RNA (mRNA) which in turn defines one or more protein sequences.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Any base within DNA can mutate (ie.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Each gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides located on one of the DNA strands.- science tips 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC rpdp.net [Source type: Academic]
The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the
amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of
translation, known collectively as the
genetic code.
.^ These 3 base sequences are called codons.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The only reason for these potentially very threatening diseases is that one or a few of the millions of letters in the genetic code are in the wrong place.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
ACT, CAG, TTT).
.^ DNA is copied into RNA by RNA polymerases .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ In transcription, the codons are copied into mRNA by RNA polymerase .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ It then copies the gene sequence into a mRNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator , where it halts and detaches from the DNA. RNA polymerase II, which transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ At the same time, another RNA copied from the DNA, called transfer RNA, carries the amino acids for the proteins to the ribosomes.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ This copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the mRNA to a specific aminoacyl-tRNA ; an amino acid carried by a transfer RNA (tRNA).- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A defined region of DNA containing multiple copies of short sequences of bases, which are repeated a number of times, the number of repeats varying among individuals in the population.
Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (
43 combinations). These encode the twenty
standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon.
.^ Also, there are three stop codons that terminate polypeptide synthesis.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ There is one start codon (AUG) that also encodes for methionine ) and three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons (UAA, UGA and UAG) that signify the end of the coding region.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The dashes at the beginning and end of the overall sequence shown indicate that there is more sequence available both upstream and downstream of the region shown.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Replication
.^ First, DNA divides into two to replicate itself.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When cells divide, the genetic information must be duplicated to produce two daughter copies of DNA in a process called DNA replication .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The replication process on the left consists of passing information from a parent DNA molecule to daughter molecules.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for this replication.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The precise mechanism of DNA replication is not known.
^ Linear, double-stranded DNA .
Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's
complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an
enzyme called
DNA polymerase.
.^ These pairings also referred as complementary base pairs.- science tips 16 October 2009 6:06 UTC rpdp.net [Source type: Academic]
^ Francis Crick and James Watson, at Cambridge University, considered hydrogen bonded base pairing interactions, and arrived at a double stranded helical model that satisfied most of the known facts, and has been confirmed by subsequent findings.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ These interactions together induce breakage of Watson-Crick nucleotide base pairing hydrogen bonds, resulting in bending of the DNA, strand elongation and unwinding events similar to those described for helicases (15 ).- Molecular Dynamics Simulations 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.msi.umn.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ DNA double helix 7-038 .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to that in the other strand.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for this replication.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[73] In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA.
Interactions with proteins
.^ Protein-DNA interaction .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ All of the functions of DNA depend on its interactions with proteins.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Protein-DNA interactions: a structural analysis.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
These
protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence.
.^ These 3 base sequences are called codons.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When these two DNA strands with matching sequences lock up at the right place, the helix is formed and can only be pulled apart by DNA polymerase or if the DNA itself becomes badly damaged and no longer contains large sections of bases inside its phosphate/sugar walls.- The DNA double helix must unwind and separate into two strands so that one strand can assemble the proper 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC askville.amazon.com [Source type: General]
^ Not all of the DNA is transcribed into RNA. Transcription starts when the RNA polymerase finds a promoter sequence on one strand of the DNA. That promoter sequence can appear on either strand; neither strand is specifically designated as the sense strand for its entire length.- The DNA double helix must unwind and separate into two strands so that one strand can assemble the proper 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC askville.amazon.com [Source type: General]
DNA-binding proteins
.^ Interaction of DNA with histones (shown in white, top).- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ These changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
These proteins' basic amino acids (below left, blue) bind to the acidic phosphate groups on DNA (below right, red).
.^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA-binding proteins .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Outline of the families of DNA-binding proteins .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Structural taxonomy and classification of protein-DNA complexes .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Protein-DNA interactions: a structural analysis.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Protein-DNA interactions: a structural analysis.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Dataset of protein-DNA complex structures .- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA-binding proteins .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes between DNA and structural proteins.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[74][75] The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a
nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones making
ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are therefore largely independent of the base sequence.
[76] .^ Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation , phosphorylation and acetylation .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Narrower terms mature peptide or protein coding sequence, signal peptide coding sequence, transit peptide coding sequence coding sequence CDS: Sequence of nucleotides that corresponds with the sequence of amino acids in a protein (location includes stop codon ).
^ Feature includes amino acid conceptual translation.
[77] .^ These changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ These observations offer an explanation as to why more than one amino acid can interact with the same nucleotide and vice-versa (11) and still satisfy site specific DNA recognition according to our hypothesis.- Harris et al. 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC epress.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Other transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter, this will change the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[78] Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA.
[79] These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes.
[80]
A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins are the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication
protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination and DNA repair.
[81] These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming
stem-loops or being degraded by
nucleases.
In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various
transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription.
.^ Codons are a sequence of DNA activated for expression.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Other proteins bind to particular DNA sequences.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Each of these proteins binds to a particular set of DNA sequences and thereby activates or inhibits the transcription of genes with these sequences close to their promoters .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Transcription factors do this in two ways.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Some can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The sigma subunit conveys promoter specificity to RNA polymerase ; that is, it is responsible for telling RNA polymerase where to bind.- DNA Transcription | Learn Science at Scitable 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Transcription begins when the enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter.
[83] Alternatively, transcription factors can bind
enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter; this will change the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.
[84].^ These DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, so changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor in a given cell can affect the expression of many genes in that cell.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Polyploid organisms also have one genome.
^ When the DNA synthesis is complete, an error occurs in one nucleotide in a thousand.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[85] Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the
signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or
cellular differentiation and development.
.^ The edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove, so proteins like transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contacts to the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Protein-DNA interaction .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ Scientists reading DNA sequence .- Dna Stock Photos and Images. 2038 Dna pictures and royalty free photography available to search from over 100 stock photo brands. 19 November 2009 18:56 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
.^ Most of these interactions occur in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The control simulation does not display a decrease in overall solvent-accessible area, the minor groove does not increase in area, and the major groove compresses minimally.- The B- to A-DNA Transition and the Reorganization of Solvent at the DNA Surface - Science News - redOrbit 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.redorbit.com [Source type: Academic]
^ These backbone interactions are reported to contribute to the protein's DNA binding affinity and to position the DNA recognition helices within their cognate operator DNA major groove halfsites (1 ).- Molecular Dynamics Simulations 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.msi.umn.edu [Source type: Academic]
[86]
DNA-modifying enzymes
Nucleases and ligases
Nucleases are
enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the
hydrolysis of the
phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called
exonucleases, while
endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in
molecular biology are the
restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences.
.^ For instance, the EcoRV enzyme recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GAT|ATC-3′ and makes a cut at the vertical line.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Endonuclease Fok I is a bipartite restriction enzyme which recognizes a specific DNA sequence and non-specifically cleaves at a position a short distance away.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ As noted in the 2'-deoxycytidine structure on the left, the numbering of the sugar carbons makes use of primed numbers to distinguish them from the heterocyclic base sites.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
In nature, these enzymes protect
bacteria against
phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the
restriction modification system.
[88] In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in
molecular cloning and
DNA fingerprinting.
Topoisomerases and helicases
Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of
supercoiling in DNA. Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break.
[27] .^ In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to that in the other strand.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Others can cut one DNA helix and then pass a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Topoisomerase : This enzyme initiates unwinding of the double helix by cutting one of the strands.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
[90] .^ Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA replication is bidirectional (There are two replication forks per circular DNA genome and replication involves leading/lagging strands, Okazaki fragments , DNA ligase , etc.
^ Topoisomerases I promote the relaxation of DNA superhelical tension by introducing a transient single-stranded break in duplex DNA and are vital for the processes of DNA replication, transcription and recombination.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
[28]
Helicases are proteins that are a type of
molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in
nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly
ATP, to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands.
[91] .^ Given that these proteins also promote DNA repair very effectively, we conclude that neither F620 nor E634 is essential for RecG helicase activity.- A model for dsDNA translocation revealed by a structural motif common to RecG and Mfd proteins : Article : The EMBO Journal 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
^ In prokaryotes the reaction is most commonly found in the protection of the DNA from restriction enzymes.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Although all these processes take place at such a dazzling speed-3,000 base pairs are produced in a minute,-all these pairs are checked repeatedly by the enzymes in charge and the necessary amendments are made.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Polymerases
Polymerases are
enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from
nucleoside triphosphates.
.^ When a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary single strand of RNA in a process called transcription .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA polymerases synthesize DNA strands by catalyzing the stepwise addition of a deoxyribonuleotide to the 3'-OH end of a polynucleotide chain that is paired to a second, template stand.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is copied by these enzymes (which only work in the 5' to 3' direction) and then translated into protein.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ They add nucleotides onto the 3′ hydroxyl group of the previous nucleotide in the DNA strand, so all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ In transcription (#1 on Figure 2), mRNA transcribes, or copies down a gene from DNA. An enzyme called RNA polymerase opens the necessary gene in the DNA and begins adding complimentary nucleotides to “copy” the gene base sequence.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ But what if the enzymes do not know how to repair a particular strand of DNA. It is not working properly and the enzymes cannot make the repair.
.^ They add nucleotides onto the 3′ hydroxyl group of the previous nucleotide in the DNA strand, so all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
[92] .^ Polymerases synthesise polynucleotides from nucleoside triphosphates .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ DNA polymerase binds to one strand of the DNA, reads the sequence of bases on the template strand and then synthesises the complementary strand.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In the active site of these enzymes, the nucleoside triphosphate substrate base-pairs to a single-stranded polynucleotide template: this allows polymerases to synthesise the complementary strand of this template accurately.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The α-proteins translated in the cytoplasm are transported into nucleus where they enable the beta-promoters to be used by the host RNA polymerase (figure 16).
^ They use various types of pipetting equipment and various methods of moving the cells on the agar surface.- Laboratory Methods 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.phys.ksu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In DNA replication, a DNA-dependent
DNA polymerase makes a copy of a DNA sequence. Accuracy is vital in this process, so many of these polymerases have a
proofreading activity.
.^ DNA(Instructions)> RNA(Messenger)> Protein(Synthesis - 3000 gene base pairs may contain 1000 amino acids).- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Many mutagens intercalate into the space between two adjacent base pairs.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′
exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed.
[93] In most organisms DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the
replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the
DNA clamp or
helicases.
[94]RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include
reverse transcriptase, which is a
viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by
retroviruses, and
telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres.
[42][95] .^ Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The nucleolus organizer is a cytological structure that contains the ribosomal RNA genes.- MGI-Guidelines for Nomenclature of Genes, Genetic Markers, Alleles, & Mutations in Mouse & Rat 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.informatics.jax.org [Source type: Academic]
^ [NCBI] Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA- dependent DNA polymerase.
[43].^ DNA polymerases copy DNA sequences.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The two strands of DNA separate, and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ [The promoter is a short sequence of DNA that defines the start of a gene, the direction of transcription, and the strand of DNA to be transcribed.
It then copies the gene sequence into a
messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the
terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases,
RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large
protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.
[96]
Genetic recombination
Structure of the
Holliday junction intermediate in
genetic recombination.
.^ DNA red blue .- Double helix Illustrations and Clipart. 107 Double helix royalty free illustrations, and drawings available to search from over 15 stock vector EPS clip art graphics publishers. 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.fotosearch.com [Source type: General]
^ These interactions together induce DNA bending, strand separation and unwinding events which are associated with DNA transcription.- Molecular Dynamics Simulations 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.msi.umn.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The DNA-binding region of the Tus family is made of four antiparallel ß strands (colored red in Figure 6b ) which links the amino- and carboxy-terminal domains and produces a large central cleft in the protein.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
[97]
Recombination involves the breakage and rejoining of two chromosomes (M and F) to produce two re-arranged chromosomes (C1 and C2).
A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "chromosome territories".
[98] This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is during
chromosomal crossover when they
recombine.
.^ Recombination is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The two -helices comprising the helical hairpin are distant from the proposed binding site for the dsDNA on which RecG translocates, and are therefore very unlikely to contact DNA directly.- A model for dsDNA translocation revealed by a structural motif common to RecG and Mfd proteins : Article : The EMBO Journal 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.nature.com [Source type: Academic]
^ When a cell is getting ready to divide creating two daughter cells, it packs its DNA into bundles called chromosomes.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ The genetic material in our chromosomes is a combination of genes from our parents.- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The existence of a gene can also be inferred in the absence of any genetic or physical map information, such as from a cDNA sequence.- MGI-Guidelines for Nomenclature of Genes, Genetic Markers, Alleles, & Mutations in Mouse & Rat 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.informatics.jax.org [Source type: Academic]
^ While the gene name should ideally be informative as to the function or nature of the gene, care should be taken to avoid putting inaccurate information in the name.- MGI-Guidelines for Nomenclature of Genes, Genetic Markers, Alleles, & Mutations in Mouse & Rat 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.informatics.jax.org [Source type: Academic]
[99] .^ Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ "The role of double-strand break repair - insights from human genetics".- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The DNA contains the genetic information of the cell.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[100]
The most common form of chromosomal crossover is
homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences.
.^ However, recombination can also damage cells, by producing chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Mutations that are the result of gene targeting by homologous recombination in ES cells are given the symbol of the targeted gene, with a superscript consisting of three parts: the symbol tm to denote a targeted mutation, a serial number from the laboratory of origin and the Laboratory code where the mutation was produced (see Section 2.1 ).- MGI-Guidelines for Nomenclature of Genes, Genetic Markers, Alleles, & Mutations in Mouse & Rat 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.informatics.jax.org [Source type: Academic]
^ When cells divide, the genetic information must be duplicated to produce two daughter copies of DNA in a process called DNA replication .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as
recombinases, such as
RAD51.
[101] The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break either caused by an
endonuclease or damage to the DNA.
[102] A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one
Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix.
.^ The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure which can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ T ransposons are genes that move from one location to another on a chromosome.
^ Complementary primary nucleotide structures for each strand allowed intra-strand hydrogen bonding between each pair of bases.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA.
[103]Evolution
.^ DNA contains the genetic information that is the basis for living functions including growth, reproduction and evolution.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The DNA contains the genetic information of the cell.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ DNA Structure Just a little less than a century ago, scientists were still trying to figure out what molecule held genetic information.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ DNA(Instructions)> RNA(Messenger)> Protein(Synthesis - 3000 gene base pairs may contain 1000 amino acids).- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
^ An alternative to the ribose strategy is forming aldehyde functionalities on the polynucleotides and using those functionalities to couple the polynucleotide to the platform molecule via reactive functional groups thereon.- US 7081242 - Methods of treating lupus based on antibody affinity and screening methods and compositions for use thereof 20 September 2009 12:012 UTC www.patents.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A complete structural representation of a segment of the RNA polymer formed from 5'-nucleotides may be viewed by clicking on the above diagram .- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
[92][104] RNA may have acted as the central part of early
cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out
catalysis as part of
ribozymes.
[105] This ancient
RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the
evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes.
[106]
.^ A Cameron Connection : DNA match, with no genetic distance, to Participant #48924 .- Cameron DNA Project - Results 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.clan-cameron.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In bacteria , there is no nuclear membrane around the DNA, which is in a region called the nucleoid .- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Participant #33561 Paternal Line: A Cameron Connection : DNA match, with no genetic distance, to Participant #29328 .- Cameron DNA Project - Results 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.clan-cameron.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Larger DNA fragments are degraded before smaller ones.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Over 400 fragments of the skull Australopithecus- Zinjanthropus Boisei were found in 1911, but it was only in 1959 when Mary Leakey uncovered a 1.75 million year old australopithecus jawbone.- DNA - PAST AND FUTURE 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When viewed in a standard 13 x 100 mm tube, yeast suspensions of less than about 1 million cells per ml are not visibly turbid.- Laboratory Methods 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.phys.ksu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[107] Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old,
[108] but these claims are controversial.
[109][110]
Uses in technology
Genetic engineering
Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as
phenol-chloroform extraction and manipulate it in the laboratory, such as
restriction digests and the
polymerase chain reaction.
.^ These changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Perhaps you are simply tuning into something in the mass consciousness about the earlier tampering with DNA, and this makes you wary of any modern day DNA work.- DNA Intuitive Healings 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.selacia.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Using genetic similarity search and secondary structure prediction techniques, we were successful in being the first to locate and describe the GR DNA recognition helix (5 , 11).- Molecular Dynamics Simulations 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.msi.umn.edu [Source type: Academic]
Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be
transformed into organisms in the form of
plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a
viral vector.
[111] The
genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant
proteins, used in
medical research,
[112] or be grown in
agriculture.
[113][114]Forensics
Forensic scientists can use DNA in
blood,
semen,
skin,
saliva or
hair found at a
crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is called genetic fingerprinting, or more accurately,
DNA profiling. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as
short tandem repeats and
minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.
[115] .^ The ability to bend DNA is not only limited to the enzymes, however; although not as severe, DNA bending is clearly also a common feature of complexes formed by transcription factors.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
[116] DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir
Alec Jeffreys,
[117] and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988
Enderby murders case.
[118]
.^ DNA samples can be collected for inclusion in a database.- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
^ People convicted of certain types of crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for a database.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair to match samples collected at a crime scene to samples taken from possible suspects.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ This has helped investigators solve old cases where only a DNA sample was obtained from the scene.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair to match samples collected at a crime scene to samples taken from possible suspects.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Attorney General Peter Harvey said other states have had success in solving long-dormant homicides and other cases since implementing DNA sampling.- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ DNA profiling can also be used to identify victims of mass casualty incidents.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ These DNA variations can be used to identify people or at least distinguish one person from another.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[119] .^ Outside the courthouse, the Weedman handed out news releases while a buddy marched around carrying a sign reading, "Say no to DNA." .- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The 110,000 people already in prison or under the supervision of parole or probation officers also are to have their DNA cataloged.- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
^ We can think of an atomic property of a DNA molecule as being the statement that it contains, somewhere, the subsequence X. This is close to what many people would take to be the essence of a classical gene.- PLoS ONE: Beyond the Gene 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.plosone.org [Source type: Academic]
Bioinformatics
.^ This process is also important in hybridizations involving dot strips or Southern blots where the single-stranded probes must bind accurately to their complementary target DNA sequences.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The data in DNA, which is made up of 3 billion letters, is composed of a special and meaningful sequence of the letters A-T-G-C. However, not even a single letter should be misplaced in this sequence.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ For example, each cycle of PCR involves heating the DNA to separate the strands followed by cooling to the appropriate temperature to allow the primer DNAs to bind accurately to their complementary sequences.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The development of techniques to store and search DNA sequences have led to widely applied advances in
computer science, especially
string searching algorithms,
machine learning and
database theory.
[120] .^ String-searching or 'matching' algorithms, which identify a given sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, are used to search for specific sequences of nucleotides.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A gene is a specific nucleotide sequence on the DNA that codes, or contains the genetic instructions, for one protein.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[121] In other applications such as
text editors, even simple algorithms for this problem usually suffice, but DNA sequences cause these algorithms to exhibit near-worst-case behaviour due to their small number of distinct characters. The related problem of
sequence alignment aims to identify
homologous sequences and locate the specific
mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially
multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying
phylogenetic relationships and protein function.
[122] .^ Maps genomic & genetic gene order: The sequential location of genes on a chromosome.
^ We now define genes as sequences of DNA that occupy specific locations on a chromosome.- Nucleic Acids 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.cem.msu.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ For example, a gene that codes eye color would be located on the same spot in two homologous chromosomes; but one of the genes may code for blue eyes on one chromosome while the other codes for brown eyes on the other chromosome.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by
gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular
gene products in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally.
[123]
DNA nanotechnology
DNA nanotechnology uses the unique
molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties.
[124] .^ DNA information is carried by four bases.
^ DNA Structure Just a little less than a century ago, scientists were still trying to figure out what molecule held genetic information.- science tips 20 September 2009 11:58 UTC www.rpdp.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ As a rule, information is required from multiple sources (rather than a single laboratory test) to accurately diagnose disorders associated with systemic autoantibodies.
This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based as well as using the "
DNA origami" method) as well as three-dimensional structures in the shapes of
polyhedra.
[125] Nanomechanical devices and
algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated,
[126] and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as
gold nanoparticles and
streptavidin proteins.
[127]History and anthropology
Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information and by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their
phylogeny.
[128] This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in
evolutionary biology.
.^ Denes can be used to represent vastly more intricate characteristics of the DNA sequence than the simple statement that it contains a particular subsequence.- PLoS ONE: Beyond the Gene 16 January 2010 1:27 UTC www.plosone.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Binding of EcoP151 DNA methyltransferase to DNA reveals a large structural distortion within the recognition sequence.- Chemical Reagents for Investigating the Major Groove of DNA | Current Protocols 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC www.currentprotocols.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes found at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes where the DNA consists of a repeated array of short, species-specific sequence motifs.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
This can be used in studies ranging from
ecological genetics to
anthropology; for example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the
Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
[129][130]DNA has also been used to look at modern family relationships, such as establishing family relationships between the descendants of
Sally Hemings and
Thomas Jefferson.
.^ Members of the same group share a prominent structural feature used for DNA recognition and are related to each other in varying degrees.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ As our main research interest lies in the investigation of interactions between proteins and DNA, the main focus is on X-ray structures of complexes that provide the requisite details.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The governor and state legislators touted the law as a way to enhance criminal investigations with a bigger database of DNA evidence.- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair to match samples collected at a crime scene to samples taken from possible suspects.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
^ PCR-based tests are also extremely sensitive to contaminating DNA at the crime scene and within the test laboratory.- DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.scientific.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The governor and state legislators touted the law as a way to enhance criminal investigations with a bigger database of DNA evidence.- DNA CONTROVERSY 19 January 2010 8:50 UTC www.njweedman.com [Source type: Original source]
[131]History of DNA research
DNA was first isolated by the
Swiss physician
Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the
pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein".
[132] In 1919,
Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar and phosphate nucleotide unit.
[133] .^ Since there are four kinds of nucleotides in a DNA chain, one consisting of 1,000 links could exist in 41000 forms.- The Miracle of Creation in DNA - Harun Yahya 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.harunyahya.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Rather than having a common structural motif for binding DNA, proteins in the enzyme group are brought together on the basis of their functions; all alter DNA structure through the catalysis of a chemical process.- Genome Biology | Full text | An overview of the structures of protein-DNA complexes 20 November 2009 8:55 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The "map" consists of eight Tzolkins joined together showing relationships between the Mayan calendar, the "I Ching" and the 64 DNA codons.- BIRTHING THE DNA OF LIGHT 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC www.greatdreams.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ An example of such a structure are short DNA intervals where the same base is tandemly repeated, as in 5'-gcAAAAAAAAAAAttg-3', or a dinucleotide or even a triplet as in 5'- ATGATGATGATGATGATGATG-3'.- DNA - encyclopedia article - Citizendium 19 January 2010 18:22 UTC en.citizendium.org [Source type: Academic]
In 1937
William Astbury produced the first
X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure.
[134]In 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of
DNA structure in the journal
Nature.
[7] Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single
X-ray diffraction image (labeled as "
Photo 51")
[138] taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952, as well as the information that the DNA bases were paired—also obtained through private communications from Erwin Chargaff in the previous years.
Chargaff's rules played a very important role in establishing double-helix configurations for B-DNA as well as A-DNA.
Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model were published in a series of five articles in the same issue of
Nature.
[139] Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partially supported the
Watson and Crick model
[31][140]; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by
Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and
in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence
in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of
Nature.
[32] In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the
Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine.
[141] Unfortunately, Nobel rules of the time allowed only living recipients, but a vigorous debate continues on who should receive credit for the discovery.
[142]See also
References
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Further reading
- Calladine, Chris R.; Drew, Horace R.; Luisi, Ben F. and Travers, Andrew A. (2003). Understanding DNA: the molecule & how it works. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-155089-3.
- Dennis, Carina; Julie Clayton (2003). 50 years of DNA. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1479-6.
- Judson, Horace Freeland (1996). The eighth day of creation: makers of the revolution in biology. Plainview, N.Y: CSHL Press. ISBN 0-87969-478-5.
- Olby, Robert C. (1994). The path to the double helix: the discovery of DNA. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-68117-3. , first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick;the definitive DNA textbook,revised in 1994 with a 9 page postscript.
- Olby, Robert C. (2009). Francis Crick: A Biography. Plainview, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-798-9.
- Ridley, Matt (2006). Francis Crick: discoverer of the genetic code. [Ashland, OH: Eminent Lives, Atlas Books. ISBN 0-06-082333-X.
- Berry, Andrew; Watson, James D. (2003). DNA: the secret of life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41546-7.
- Stent, Gunther Siegmund; Watson, James D. (1980). The double helix: a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-95075-1.
- Wilkins, Maurice (2003). The third man of the double helix the autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Cambridge, Eng: University Press. ISBN 0-19-860665-6.
External links
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/diˈɒksɪˈraɪboʊnuˈkliɪk ˈæsɪd/ (help·info)) (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses.^ 
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