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Empire State Building
Empire State Building was the world's tallest building from 1931 to 1973.[I]
Record height
Preceded by	Chrysler Building (in the background of the picture)
Surpassed by	World Trade Center
General information
Location	350 Fifth Avenue New York, New York 10118[1]
Coordinates	40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W / 40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556 (Empire State Building)Coordinates: 40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W / 40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556 (Empire State Building)[2]
Status	Complete
Constructed	1929–1931[3]
Use	Office, observation
Height
Antenna or spire	1,454 ft (443.2 m)[4][5]
Roof	1,250 ft (381.0 m)
Top floor	1,224 ft (373.2 m)[6]
Technical details
Floor count	102
Floor area	2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m2)
Cost	$40,948,900[7]
Companies involved
Architect(s)	Shreve, Lamb and Harmon
Contractor	Starrett Brothers and Eken
Management	W&H Properties
^ Fully habitable, self-supported, from main entrance to highest structural or architectural top; see the list of tallest buildings in the world for other listings.

The Empire State Building is a 102-story landmark Art Deco skyscraper in New York City at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street. Its name is derived from the nickname for the state of New York, The Empire State. It stood as the world's tallest building for more than forty years, from its completion in 1931 until construction of the World Trade Center's North Tower was completed in 1972. Following the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, the Empire State Building once again became the tallest building in New York City and New York State.

The Empire State Building has been named by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate.^[8] It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986.^[9][10][11] In 2007, it was ranked number one on the List of America's Favorite Architecture according to the AIA. The building is owned and managed by W&H Properties.^[12]

The Empire State Building is the third tallest skyscraper in the Americas (after the Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) and Trump International Hotel and Tower both in Chicago), and the 15th tallest in the world. It is also the fourth tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. The Empire State building is currently undergoing a $120 million renovation in an effort to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure.^[13]

History

Empire State Building
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
NYC Landmark
Location:	350 Fifth Avenue New York, New York 10118  United States[1]
Coordinates:	40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W / 40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556Coordinates: 40°44′54.36″N 73°59′08.36″W / 40.7484333°N 73.9856556°W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556
Architect:	Shreve, Lamb and Harmon
Architectural style(s):	Art Deco
Added to NRHP:	November 17, 1982[14]
Designated NHL:	June 24, 1986[9]
Designated NYCL:	May 19, 1981
NRHP Reference#:	82001192

The site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thomson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.

Design and construction

The Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W.W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building.^[15][16] The building was designed from the top down.^[17] The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials.^[3] John W. Bowser was project construction superintendent.^[18][19][20]

A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.

Excavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started symbolically on March 17—St.Patrick's Day—per Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction.^[21] Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era.^[22] In particular the photo of a worker climbing a stay cable^[23] is talismanic of the era and the building itself.

The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of "world's tallest building". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signalling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.^[24]

Opening

The building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space went without being rented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal, the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and Penn Station are all several blocks away. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, do not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building".^[25][26] The building would not become profitable until 1950. The famous 1951 sale of The Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price ever paid for a single structure in real-estate history.^[27]

Dirigible (airship) terminal

The building's distinctive Art Deco spire was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles. The 102nd floor was originally a landing platform with a dirigible gangplank.^[28] A particular elevator, traveling between the 86th and 102nd floors, was supposed to transport passengers after they checked in at the observation deck on the 86th floor. However, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous after a few attempts with airships, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself.^[29] A large broadcast tower was added to the top of the spire in 1953.^[28]

1945 plane crash

Crash by a U.S. Army B-25 bomber on July 28, 1945

At 9:40 a.m.on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr.,^[30] crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the incident.^[31][32] Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded.^[33] Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the accident.^[34]

A year later, another aircraft had a close encounter with the skyscraper. It narrowly missed striking the building.^[35]

Height records and comparisons

Height comparison in buildings in New York City

The Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.

The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1973. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, currently surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. When measured by pinnacle height, the Empire State Building is currently the third-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower and the Trump International Hotel and Tower.

1 World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York City, is expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion. The Chicago Spire is also expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion, but its construction has been halted due to financial problems.

Suicides

Over the years, more than thirty people have committed suicide from the top of the building.^[36] The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span.^[37] On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto the 85th floor and left with only a broken hip.^{[38][39][40][41]}

Shootings

On February 24, 1997, a Palestinian gunman shot seven people on the observation deck, killing one, then fatally wounding himself.

Architecture

The Empire State Building (in center of image) is the tallest building in New York City

Street level view of the Empire State Building

The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 ft (381 m) at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, its full height reaches 1,453 ft–8⁹⁄₁₆ in (443.09 m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2,158,000 sq ft (200,500 m²). It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.

The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 103rd floor. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m²); the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acres (8,094 m²). The building houses 1,000 businesses, and has its own zip code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 86th floor, where an observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi (113 km) of pipe, 2,500,000 ft (760,000 m) of electrical wire,^[42] and about 9,000 faucets.^{[citation needed]} It is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and 3 psi (14 and 21 kPa) of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 370,000 short tons (340,000 t). The exterior of the building was built using Indiana limestone panels.

The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build.^[7]

A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height.

Unlike most of today's skyscrapers, the Empire State Building features an art deco design, typical of pre-World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.^[8]

The lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven.

Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system.

Floodlights

Empire State Building with red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from GE Building

Empire State Building with normal white lighting, as seen from New Jersey

In 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day, Christmas, Independence Day or Bastille Day.^[43] After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname "Ol' Blue Eyes". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.^[44]

The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule.^[45] Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September. It was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006 , and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game.^[46]

In 1995, the building was lit up in blue, red, green and yellow for the release of Microsoft's Windows 95 operating system, which was launched with a $300 million campaign.^[47]

The building has also been known to be illuminated in purple and white in honor of graduating students from New York University.^[45]

Every year in September, the building is lit in black, red, and yellow, with the top lights off (for black) to celebrate the German-American Steuben Parade on Fifth Avenue.^[48]

The building was lit green for three days in honor of the Islamic holiday of Eid ul-Fitr in October 2007. The lighting, the first for a Muslim holiday, is intended to be an annual event^[49] and was repeated in 2008 and 2009. In December 2007, the building was lit yellow to signify the home video release of The Simpsons Movie.^[50]

From April 25—27, 2008 the building was lit in lavender, pink, and white in celebration of international pop diva Mariah Carey's accomplishments in the world of music and the release of her eleventh studio album E=MC2.^{[citation needed]}

In late October 2008, the building was lit green in honor of the fifth anniversary of the acclaimed Broadway Musical Wicked by Kerry Ellis and Stephen Schwartz.^[51]

Starting in 2008, the building along with New York City and many other cities around the world, participated in Earth Hour. The skyscraper's floodlights were turned off for exactly an hour to conserve energy.

In September 2009, the building was lit for one night in orange colors, in celebration of the exploration of Manhattan Island by Henry Hudson 400 years earlier. The Dutch prince Willem-Alexander van Oranje and princess Maxima were present and turned on the lights from the lobby.

In 2009, the building was lit for one night in red and yellow, the colors of the Communist People's Republic of China, to celebrate the 60 years since its founding, amid controversy.

Observation decks

The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor.^[52] The lines to enter the observation decks, according to the building's website, are "as legendary as the building itself:" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck.^[53] For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line.^[52]

The skyscraper’s observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary work Empire of Dreams by Giannina Braschi the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a Martian invasion on an old episode of I Love Lucy.

A panoramic view of New York City from the 86th-floor observation deck of the Empire State Building, spring 2005

New York Skyride

View from Macy's

The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction, located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Skyride (or NY Skyride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The theatrical presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes.

Since its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After September 11th, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.

Broadcast stations

New York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Condé Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from just across the Hudson River in New Jersey.

Communications devices for broadcast stations are located at the top of the Empire State Building.

Broadcasting began at Empire on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, and—in 1934—RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the Empire antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the Empire until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began. Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas were constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.

As of 2009, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:

• TV: WCBS-TV 2, WNBC-TV 4, WNYW 5, WABC-TV 7, WWOR-TV 9 Secaucus, WPIX-TV 11, WNET 13 Newark, WNYE-TV 25, WPXN-TV 31, WXTV 41 Paterson, WNJU 47 Linden, and WFUT-TV 68 Newark
• FM: WXRK 92.3, WPAT-FM 93.1 Paterson, WNYC-FM 93.9, WPLJ 95.5, WXNY 96.3, WQHT-FM 97.1, WSKQ-FM 97.9, WRKS-FM 98.7, WBAI 99.5, WHTZ 100.3 Newark, WCBS-FM 101.1, WRXP 101.9, WWFS 102.7, WKTU 103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ 104.3, WWPR-FM 105.1, WQXR-FM 105.9 Newark, WLTW 106.7, and WBLS 107.5

Empire State Building Run-Up

The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003,^[54][55] at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour.

In popular culture

Film

• Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the 1933 film King Kong, in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death. In 1983, for the 50th anniversary of the film, an inflatable King Kong was placed on the actual building. In 2005, a remake of King Kong was released, set in 1930s New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and bi-planes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. (The 1976 remake of King Kong was set in a contemporary New York City and held its climactic scene on the towers of the World Trade Center.)
• The 1939 romantic drama film Love Affair involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is averted by an automobile accident. The film was remade in 1957 (as An Affair to Remember) and in 1994 (again as Love Affair). The 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle, a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with a scene at the Empire State observatory.
• Andy Warhol's 1964 silent film Empire is one continuous, eight-hour shot of the Empire State Building at night, shot in black-and-white. In 2004, the National Film Registry deemed its cultural significance worthy of preservation in the Library of Congress.
• The film Independence Day features the Empire State Building as ground zero for an alien attack; it is devastated by the aliens' primary weapon which incinerates most of New York City.
• Many other movies that feature the Empire State Building are listed on the building's own website.^[56]

Television

• The Empire State Building featured in the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Chase, in which the TARDIS lands on the roof of the building; The Doctor and his companions leave quite quickly, however, because The Daleks are close behind them. A Dalek is also seen on the roof of the building while it interrogates a human. In 2007, Doctor Who episodes "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks" also featured the building, which the Daleks are constructing to use as a lightning conductor. Russell T Davies said in an article that "in his mind", the Daleks remembered the building from their last visit.
• The Discovery Channel show MythBusters tested the urban myth which claims that if one drops a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it could kill someone or put a crater in the pavement. The outcome was that, by the time the penny hits the ground, it is going roughly 65 mph (105 km/h) (terminal velocity for an object of its mass and shape), which is not fast enough to inflict lethal injury or put a crater into the pavement. The urban legend is a joke in the 2003 musical Avenue Q, where a character waiting atop the building for a rendezvous tosses a penny over the side—only to hit her rival.

Literature

• H.G. Wells' 1933 science fiction book The Shape of Things to Come, written in the form of a history book published in the far future, includes the following passage: "Up to quite recently Lower New York has been the most old-fashioned city in the world, unique in its gloomy antiquity. The last of the ancient skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, is even now under demolition in C.E. 2106!".^[57]
• In the science fiction novel The Rebel of Rhada by Robert Cham Gilman (Alfred Coppel), taking place at a decayed galactic empire of the far future, New York is an ancient city which was destroyed and rebuilt countless times. Its highest and most ancient building, covered with piled-up ruins up to half its height, is known simply as "The Empire Tower", but is obviously the Empire State Building.
• David Macaulay's 1980 illustrated book Unbuilding depicts the Empire State Building being purchased by a Middle Eastern billionaire and disassembled piece by piece, to be transported to his home country and rebuilt there.
• The Empire State Building is featured prominently as both a setting and integral plot device throughout much of Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay.
• In the Percy Jackson book series, Mount Olympus is located over the Empire State Building, and there is a special elevator in the building to the "600th floor," which is supposed to be Olympus.

Tenants

Gallery

A view upward of the Empire State Building from Broadway	The top of the Empire State Building	Looking up	Looking Down
Looking towards Times Square	Art deco elevators in the lobby	Panoramic view of Midtown Manhattan from observation deck	The Empire State Building lights up in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC

See also

New York City portal

• World's tallest free standing structure on land
• History of tallest skyscrapers
• List of skyscrapers
• List of tallest buildings by U.S. state

References

Notes

Further reading

• Aaseng, Nathan. (1999). Construction: Building the Impossible. Minneapolis, MN: Oliver Press. ISBN 1-881-50859-5.
• Bascomb, Neal. (2003). Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50660-0.
• Goldman, Jonathan. (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-24455-X.
• James, Theodore, Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-060-12172-6.
• Kingwell, Mark. (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10622-X.
• Pacelle, Mitchell. (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-40394-6.
• Tauranac, John. (1995). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-19678-6.
• Wagner, Geraldine B. (2003). Thirteen Months to Go: The Creation of the Empire State Building. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 1-592-23105-5.
• Willis, Carol (ed). (1998). Building the Empire State. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-73030-1.

External links

• Empire State Building official Web site
• Commercial Construction.com
• Lighting Schedule
• Empire State Building Green Retrofit
• Empire State Building Trivia
• Empire State Building Information
• The Construction of the Empire State Building, 1930–1931, New York Public Library
• VIVA2, The Skyscraper Museum's online archive of over 500 construction photographs of the Empire State Building.
• NYC Insider Guide, Empire State Building vs. Top of the Rock compare views.
• Empire State Building at Structurae

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From Wikitravel

Midtown as seen from East River

Midtown Manhattan is the core retail and commercial neighborhood of New York City, containing the highest concentration of business and money this side of, well, the planet. The Empire State Building, once again the tallest building in Manhattan, is here. Shady Bryant Park abuts the imposing New York Public Library main branch at 42nd Street, while to the east is the magnificent Beaux Arts Grand Central Terminal. Le Corbusier's landmark UN Headquarters is located on the East River. The masterpiece art deco towers of Rockefeller Center and adjoining Radio City sit opposite 5th Avenue from St. Patrick's Cathedral, the seat of the city's archdiocese. Fifth Avenue below 59th remains the toniest and most exclusive retail neighborhood in New York City, home to names like Saks, Tiffany, FAO Schwarz and Bendel. Murray Hill north of 34th Street is home to some of the city's nicest brownstones. Much of the real estate in this neighborhood is likewise quite expensive, and the restaurants, bars and other facilities notably cater to a higher-paying clientele.

Understand

Orientation

Midtown, also called Midtown East to distinguish it from the Theater District to the west, is the area between around 34th St and 59th St (beyond which is Central Park), and from the East River through First, Second, Third, Lexington, Park, Madison, and Fifth Avenues, with Sixth Avenue as the western boundary of the district.

Grand Central Terminal

By subway

There is plenty of subway service to this area. The 4, 5, and 6 lines travel under Park Avenue (south of Grand Central Station) and Lexington Avenue (north of Grand Central), stopping at 42nd St. (Grand Central Station) and 59th St., with the 6 also stopping at 51st St. Running under 6th Avenue are the B, D, F, and V lines, which stop at 34th St. (close to the Empire State Building), 42nd St. (at Bryant Park, near the library) and 47-50 St. station (near Rockefeller Center). The F line continues up 6th Avenue, stopping at 57th St., while the V line heads under 53rd Street along with the E line, stopping at 5th Av. and Lexington Av. (a passageway offers a free transfer to the 6 line). The 7 and S (Grand Central Shuttle) lines under 42nd St., both of which stop at Grand Central Station, with the 7 also stopping at 5th Av. (free transfer to the B, D, F, and V lines). Also serving the neighborhood are the N, R, Q, and W lines, which stop at 34th St. and 6th Av., close to the Empire State Building.

By MTA bus

Regular MTA buses run along every avenue except for short avenues like Vanderbilt, and there are also crosstown buses on 34th, 42nd, 49th/50th, and 57th Sts. In addition, express buses stop along these avenues, including the X25 to Lower Manhattan. Express buses charge a $5 fare, with free transfers available to other routes, and local buses charge $2.25 and enable free transfers to other local routes and the subway, with some exceptions.

By Metro North commuter train

Metro North commuter trains originate and terminate at Grand Central Terminal on E. 42 St. between Vanderbilt and Lexington Avs. See the By train section on the main New York City page for more info. Note that the train terminal (but not the subway stop serving it) closes from approximately 1AM to 5AM daily.

Bryant Park, with the Public Library in the background

• Bryant Park, Main Library, 42nd and 6th Avenue, ☎ +1 212 768-4242 (bpc@urbanmgt.com, fax: +1 212 719-3499), [1]. Located behind the Main Library, this shady park is an excellent spot to relax and get some good views of the surrounding skyscrapers. The park has free wireless internet, a children's carousel, several food and drink kiosks, and seasonal shows such as Fashion Week.  edit
• Greenacre Park, 51st Street (between 2nd and 3rd Avenues). One of New York's many "pocket parks," Greenacre is a small plot of green space and an excellent place to relax, with a nice waterfall in the back, plenty of seats and tables, and lots of shade, plus a small tea shop.  edit
• Paley Park, 53rd Street (between Madison and 5th Avenues). Another pocket park which is celebrated among landscape architects and urban designers, Paley is a great place to relax, with plenty of chairs below a canopy of trees and a waterfall spanning the entire back wall of the park.  edit
• SONY Wonder Technology Lab, 550 Madison Avenue, ☎ +1 212 833-5414, [2]. Tu-Sa 10AM-5PM, Su 12PM-5PM, Closed Monday and major holidays. Interactive hands-on exhibits of cutting edge technology, sponsored by Sony. Reservations are highly recommended.  edit

• Chrysler Building, 405 Lexington Ave (at 42nd Street). One of the most recognizable and favored structures of New York, the Chrysler was the world's tallest building when completed in 1930, but lost that title to the nearby Empire State Building less than a year later. But what it lost in fame it makes up for in beauty, with its gorgeous, instantly recognizable Art Deco crown.  edit
• Citicorp Center, 153 East 53rd Street (between Lexington and 3rd Avenues). With its distinctive slanted roof and long, slender base columns, this building is another great skyscraper with a grand atrium.  edit
• Daily News Building, 220 East 42nd Street (between 2nd and 3rd Avenues). This Art Deco design classic, completed in 1930 to a design by Raymond Hood, was made famous by the Superman films; to be admired are the extreme verticality of the design, the understated setbacks and functional design. The newspaper no longer holds offices here, but a visit to the foyer is well worth a visit if passing, if only to see the newspaper's giant globe sculpture and wall weather stations.  edit
• Empire State Building, 350 Fifth Avenue (Fifth Avenue at 34th Street), ☎ +1 212 736-3100, [3]. Daily 8AM-2AM. A legend from the moment it was finished in 1931, the Empire State Building was easily the tallest building not just in New York, but the entire world for many years before being overtaken by another New York landmark - the twin towers of the World Trade Center. With the destruction of those two buildings, the Empire State Building is once again the tallest building in the city and one of its biggest tourist attractions. Expect long lines, and a lot of them - you'll have to wait in line to pass through a security checkpoint, wait in line to get tickets, wait in line for the elevators, and then make your way through the crowd on the outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. One way to deal with the lines is to buy an express line ticket, which will bring you to the front of any line, but it will more than double the cost of your ticket. Another option is to visit very early in the day or late in the evening, when the lines will be considerably shorter. Despite the long lines and inevitable tourist kitsch, the views are excellent and the experience of being outdoors on top of New York City is a great one. $20 adults, $18 students/seniors (62+), $14 children (6-12), free for military in full uniform/children under 5 (tickets to 102nd floor observatory are $15 extra and only sold at ticket office; express line tickets and skyride tickets also sold.  edit
• Grand Central Terminal, 42nd Street and Park Avenue (Subway: 4, 5, 6, 7, and S lines), [4]. 5:30AM-1:30AM. Walk in and see the main concourse, a cavernous room often filled with people and elegantly detailed, with arched windows, a lovely clock, and an astronomical ceiling. Free.  edit
• MetLife Building, 200 Park Avenue (between 44th and 45th Streets, next to Grand Central Station). Since it was built on it has been probably the most hated building in New York, mostly because it rises up over Grand Central Station, completely blocking the view up Park Avenue, but it is a good example of modern architecture.  edit
• New York Public Library, 455 Fifth Avenue (between 40th and 42nd Streets), ☎ +1 212 340-0833, [5]. M, Th-Sa 11AM-6PM, Tu-W 11AM-7:30PM, closed Su. The main branch of the New York Public Library (officially the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building), this is the grand structure flanked by lions on both sides of the entrance. Inside you'll see impressive architecture, long hallways, and beautifully designed reading rooms. Free.  edit
• Rockefeller Center, [6]. The Christmas Tree, the Skating Rink, NBC studios, the shops and hubbub - you can't miss it. The Christmas Tree and the Skating Rink are naturally not year round, but in the summer, the complex is a hub for touristy operations. Within the striking Art Deco buildings of the complex are several dining establishments overlooking the area and many stores.  edit
  • Radio City Music Hall, 1260 6th Avenue (between 50th and 51st Streets), ☎ +1 212 307-7171, [7]. Daily 11:30AM–6PM. See the Rockettes, another show, or just tour the famous Art Deco masterpiece.  edit
  • Top of the Rock Observation Deck, West 50th Street (between Fifth and Sixth Avenue), ☎ +1 212 698-2000 (info@topoftherocknyc.com), [8]. Daily 8:30AM-Midnight, last elevator at 11PM. On the 70th floor of the GE Building (better known by some as "30 Rock") is this narrow observation deck, built to resemble the deck of a cruise ship. The deck affords uninterrupted views over Central Park to the north and across Midtown to the south. $17.50 adults, $16 seniors, $11.25 children.  edit
• St. Patrick's Cathedral, 460 Madison Avenue (between 50th and 51st Streets), ☎ +1 212 753-2261 (spctrojas@aol.com, fax: +1 212 755-4128), [9]. A big, grand Catholic church.  edit

The United Nations

• United Nations Headquarters, First Avenue at 46th Street (No parking available; take public transport to Grand Central Station then walk, or take the M15 bus up 1st Avenue or down 2nd Avenue), [10]. The UN HQ sits on an 18-acre site between 42nd and 48th Streets, and between First Avenue and the East River. It is noted for its gardens and outdoor sculpture. There is a charge for the tours of the General Assembly and Secretariat but you can visit the Visitor's Lobby for free (although you do have to pass through a security checkpoint). There are two levels to the lobby area which includes a gallery, a gift shop, and a bookshop. If just visiting the lobby, don't join any queues once you're in the lobby - just find your way around. There is little in the way of signs to tell you where you can go - this is the UN, well-meaning but not well organized. Free; guided tours $11.50 adults, $8.50 seniors, $7.50 students, $6.50 children (6-14).  edit
• Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, 301 Park Avenue (Between 49th and 50th Streets), ☎ +1 212 355-3100, [11]. A famous luxury hotel.  edit

• American Folk Art Museum, 45 West 53rd Street, ☎ +1 212 265-1040 (info@folkartmuseum.org, fax: +1 212 265-2350), [12]. Tu-Su 10:30AM-5:30PM, F 10:30AM-7:30PM, closed Monday. $9 adults, $7 students/seniors, free for children under 12 (free admission Fridays after 5:30PM.  edit
• Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), 11 West 53 Street (between Fifth and Sixth avenues), ☎ +1 212 708-9400 (info@moma.org), [13]. Sa-M 10:30AM-5:30PM, Closed Tuesday, W-Th 10:30AM-5:30PM, F 10:30AM-8PM. One of the greatest and most popular collections of modern art, on a par with the Tate Modern in London or Paris's Centre Georges Pompidou. Exceedingly popular so be warned: queues for tickets start early and stretch long. To avoid the crowds, turn up at the door at least a half hour before opening, then take the elevator to the top floor and work your way down. The building is as much a draw as the outstanding collection; possessing arguably the best collection of modern masterpieces world-wide, MoMA houses important art works from van Gogh, Picasso, Monet, Matisse, Salvador Dalí, Paul Cézanne, Frida Kahlo, Piet Mondrian, and works by leading American artists such as Jackson Pollock, Jasper Johns, Edward Hopper, Andy Warhol, and Chuck Close. MoMA also holds renowned art photography and design collections. $20 adults, $16 seniors, $12 students, free for children under 16 (free admission Fridays 4PM-8PM).  edit
• Museum of Television & Radio, 25 West 52 Street, ☎ +1 212 621-6600, [14]. M, W, F-Su Noon-6PM, Th Noon-8PM, Closed Mondays and Tuesdays. Dedicated to preserving and collecting television programs as a service to the public, the museum consists of two museum branches in Los Angeles and New York City; combined they hold over 100,000 television programs that are available to the public, providing a historical, artistic and cultural perspective to television and radio. You may use their library here for the price of admission. They have lots of old shows and a database so you can see if they have what you want. $10 adults, $8 students/seniors, $5 children under 14.  edit

Buy

Fifth Ave is a shoppers' paradise from 42nd to 60th Streets, boasting numerous flagships stores of national chains. Perpetually mobbed with shoppers and tourists, Fifth Avenue is a virtual standstill during the Christmas shopping season, when Bergdorf Goodman, Saks Fifth Avenue, Cartier, Tiffany's, and Lord and Taylor put out their holiday displays. Other popular stores include Niketown, NBA Store, Versace, Gucci, Armani Exchange.

47th Street between 5th and 6th Avenues is a large wholesale and retail Jewelry District. It is said that nearly every diamond sold in the US passes first through this street. On this street a dealer's reputation among the community of jewelry dealers is all-important, and million-dollar contracts are agreed to with just a handshake because of the reputation of each dealer.

• Bloomingdale's, 1000 Third Avenue (59th Street and Lexington Avenue), ☎ +1 212 705-2000, [15]. An enormous department store that is frequented by the glamorous and the masses alike. A must-visit for any serious shopper.  edit
• FAO Schwartz, 767 Fifth Avenue (58th Street and Fifth Avenue), ☎ +1 212 644-9400, Ext. 4242, [16]. One of only two FAO Schwarz stores remaining in the country, this is the Holy Grail of toy stores, with toys and collectibles ranging from the small, cheap, and mainstream to the enormous, expensive, and exotic. Take a walk across the giant piano on the floor to feel like Tom Hanks in 'Big.'  edit
• Morrell Wine, 1 Rockefeller Plaza (49th st. between 5th & 6th ave.). 10-7 Mon-Sat. Perhaps the best wine selection in the city, this is the place to go if you want to find that unusual bottle to take home as a gift. They also ship all over if you want to take home more than you can carry!  edit
• Saks Fifth Avenue, 611 5th Avenue, ☎ +1 212 753-4000, [17].  edit
• Tiffany & Co., Fifth Avenue at 57th Street, ☎ +1 212 755-8000, [18]. M-F 10am-7pm, Sa 10am-6pm, Su 12noon-5pm, closed Memorial Day. The famous jewellers, scene of Audrey Hepburn's Breakfast at Tiffany's  edit

• 44 Restaurant, 44 West 44th Street, [19]. Chic American cuisine in a hip and trendy location.  edit
• Asia de Cuba, 237 Madison Avenue (between 37th & 38th Streets), ☎ +1 212 726-7755, [20]. An excellent fusion of Asian and Latin in Ian Schrager's Morgans Hotel. Reserve in advance and go dressed - no jeans/sneakers. Everything is fabulous from cocktails to dinner items to dessert. The custom is to get many dishes that are shared at the table, but you don't have to stick to that format.  edit
• Cho Dang Gol, 55 West 35 Street (between 5th and 6th Avenues), ☎ +1 212 695-8222 (contact@chodanggolny.com, fax: +1 212 695-3797), [21]. A slightly upscale Korean restaurant that specializes in dishes made with artisanal tofu, several varieties of which are made on premises. Lunch is cheaper (~$20) and more informal. Expect to pay about $30 for dinner.  edit
• Giovanni Ristorante, 47 W. 55th St. Delicious Italian food (the risotto is recommended) and great wines. Fine and relaxing atmosphere.  edit
• Han Bat, 55 West 35 Street (Between 5th and 6th Avenues), ☎ +1 212 629-5588. Han Bat has the feel of a Korean diner with excellent inexpensive food. Try their Hyaemul Dolsot Bibimbap (rice cooked in a stone pot with mixed seafood, herbs, Korean hot sauce, etc.). Expect to pay around $20 for a hearty meal including 6 banchan (side dishes provided to diners for no additional charge).  edit
• Havana NY, 27 West 38th Street (between 6th & 5th Avenues), ☎ +1 212 944-0990, [22]. Well-priced Cuban casual restaurant & bar for lunch and dinner. They serve a variety of daily specials, including Plantain Soup and Suckling Roast Pork.  edit
• Joe's Shanghai, 24 West 56th Street (between Fifth and Sixth Avenue), ☎ +1 212 333-3868 (fax: +1 212 397-1107), [23]. M-Sa 10AM-11PM, Su 1PM-10:30PM. Try their famous "soup dumplings" -- listed on the menu as "steamed buns", and their other delicious Shanghai specialties. Pricier than the Chinatown location. $10-$20.  edit
• Keens Steakhouse, 72 West 36th Street, ☎ +1 212 947-3636 (banquet@keens.com, fax: +1 212 714-1103), [24]. M-F 11:45AM-10:30PM, Sa 5PM-10:30PM, Su 5PM-9PM. A New York chophouse with excellent steaks and great bar for pre & post dinner drinks or just drinks. Fine dining in comfortable surroundings. Founded in 1885, the restaurant has a interesting ceiling covered in 90,000 clay pipes which the customers used to smoke after dinner. Pipes were left at establishments, as they were too brittle to transport!  edit
• Madangsui, 35 West 35th St. (between 5th and 6th Avs.), ☎ +1 212 564-9333. Serves great Korean barbecue accompanied by a generous (8 dishes) and delectable banchan (complimentary side dishes), plus a bowl of dwenjang jigae (soupy stew made with fermented bean paste). Open within the past year or so, the restaurant has already proven itself as one of the best in Koreatown.  edit
• Tao, E. 58th Street (between Park and Madison Aves), [25]. Trendy Asian cuisine; reservations required. Beautiful decor.  edit
• Woo Chon, 8 W. 36 St. (just west of 5th Av.), ☎ +1 212 695-0676. A fine Korean restaurant with an extensive menu.  edit

• Ginger Man, 11 East 36th Street, ☎ +1 212 532-3740 (fax: +1 212 532-3490), [26]. Sister bar to the Volcano (below). Larger bar with a broad selection of drinks that also serves bar food and snacks. Also an after-work crowd, this bar is also popular with your average Joes. Good place for groups.  edit
• mad46, 45 East 45th Street, [27]. 5PM-12AM. Amazing happy hour spot in Midtown atop The Roosevelt Hotel with a fantastic view. Not only serving delicious after work cocktails, but also offers a lite fair menu.  edit
• Under the Volcano, 12 East 36th Street (between 5th Avenue and Madison), ☎ +1 212 213-0093. Darkly lit atmospheric bar, this place usually caters to the after-work crowd. Relatively small, it can get crowded but after the throngs leave, you will enjoy the fun and friendly staff who'll let you invent your own drinks. Malcolm Lowry themed through and through.  edit

• Soldiers', Sailors', Marines', Coast Guard and Airmen's Club, 283 Lexington Avenue (at the corner of 37th Street), ☎ +1 212 683-4353, [28]. checkin: 4PM; checkout: 10:30AM. A service member friendly hotel not too far off from Times Square, the Theater District, or Central Park. The hotel is closed to non-military personnel unless accompanied by a service member, veteran, or military retiree. Rates are based on rank; $25+.   edit
• Vanderbilt YMCA, 224 E. 47th Street (Subway: 4, 5, 6, 7 trains to 42 Street-Grand Central, B, D, F, V trains to 47–50 Streets-Rockefeller Center), [29]. Walking distance from Grand Central Terminal and near the United Nations. Twin private room: $35.  edit

• Comfort Inn Manhattan, 42 West 35th Street (between 5th and 6th Avs.), ☎ +1 212 947-0200, [30]. Its main selling point is its location. $250+.  edit
• Hotel 373 Fifth Avenue, 373 Fifth Avenue (at 35th St.), ☎ +1 212 695-7200, [31].  edit
• Roosevelt Hotel, 45 East 45th Street (at Madison Avenue), ☎ +1 212 661-4475, [32].  edit
• Super 8 Times Square, 59 West 46th Street, ☎ +1 212 719-2300, [33]. Cheap, clean, plain. This isn't the regular Super 8: It's an older hotel that was recently renovated. The location is excellent, just a short walk from Times Square. The price is low by Manhattan standards. $200.  edit

• 70 Park Avenue Hotel, 70 Park Avenue (corner of Park Avenue and 38th Street), ☎ +1 212 973-2400 (fax: +1 212 973-2401), [34]. Nice boutique hotel with good bar, Silverleaf Tavern, which serves a good G&T. Lovely rooms including LCD TV's etc. Some rooms have a view of the Empire State Building.  edit
• Ink48 Hotel, 653 11th Avenue at 48th, New York, NY 10036 (corner of 11th Avenue and 48th Street), ☎ +1 212 757-0088 (fax: +1 212 757-2088), [35]. New boutique hotel located in midtown West, stylish and offering dramatic views of the New York City skyline and the Hudson River.  edit
• Bedford Hotel, 118 E. 40th Street (between Park and Lexington Avenues), [36]. A small European style hotel located between the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building.  edit
• Bryant Park Hotel, W. 40th Street (between 5th & 6th Aves, on Bryant Park), [37]. Distinctive black brick and gold trim building. Amenities include deep soaking tubs, cashmere blankets, Pipino toiletries, Tibetan rugs in rooms. $245+.  edit
• Crowne Plaza at the United Nations, 304 East 42nd Street, ☎ +1 212 986-8800 (fax: +1 212 986-1758), [38].  edit
• Dylan Hotel, 52 East 41st Street (between Madison and Park Avs.), [39].  edit
• Fitzpatrick Manhattan Hotel, 768 Lexington Avenue, ☎ +1 212 355-0100, [40]. Irish boutique hotel with a popular on-site Irish restaurant.  edit
• Four Seasons Hotel, 57 East 57th Street (between Madison and Park Avenues), ☎ +1 212 758-5700, [41].  edit
• Grand Hyatt New York, Park Avenue at Grand Central Terminal, ☎ +1 212 883-1234 (fax: +1 212 697-3772), [42]. Attached to Grand Central Station.  edit
• Hotel Elysee, 60 East 54th Street, ☎ +1 212 753-1066 (hotelres@elyseehotel.com, fax: +1 212 980-9278), [43]. The country French style Hotel Elysee offers guests free high speed Wi-fi and complimentary refreshments in the Club room 24 hours a day including breakfast in the mornings and wine and cheese receptions on weeknights.  edit
• Hotel Metro, 45 West 35th Street, [44]. Newly renovated guestrooms, complimentary continental breakfast or afternoon snack in the Metro Grill restaurant.  edit
• Kimberly Hotel, 145 E 50th Street, [45].  edit
• Kitano, 66 Park Avenue, [46]. A luxury four-diamond Japanese style hotel.  edit
• Library Hotel, 299 Madison Avenue (at 41 Street), ☎ +1 212 983-4500 (reservations@libraryhotel.com, fax: +1 212 499-9099), [47]. Free high speed Wi-fi and complimentary refreshments in the Reading Room 24 hours a day including breakfast in the mornings and wine and cheese receptions in the evenings except for Sunday nights.  edit
• New York Helmsley, 212 East 42nd Street, [48]. Service and amenities with attention to details. Harry's New York Bar just off the hotel lobby. Mindy's Restaurant offers fine dining.  edit
• New York Palace Hotel, 455 Madison Avenue (at 50th St.), ☎ +1 212 888-7000, [49]. Luxury accommodations, good views, spacious rooms, spa & fitness center, fine dining at the Gilt Restaurant & Bar, meeting and event rooms.  edit
• Omni Berkshire Place, 21 East 52nd Street (at Madison Avenue), [50].  edit
• Peninsula Hotel New York, (Fifth Avenue and 55th Street), [51]. Has rooftop bar.  edit
• Roger Smith Hotel, 501 Lexington Avenue (corner of 47th St.), [52].  edit
• San Carlos, 150 East 50th St., [53].  edit
• Sherry Netherland, 781 Fifth Avenue, [54]. Full concierge assistance, elevator attendants, beautifully furnished rooms.  edit

Definition from Wiktionary, a free dictionary

Wikipedia has an article on:

Empire State Building

Wikipedia

English

Etymology

Empire State + building.

Proper noun

Empire State Building

1. A skyscraper in New York City, the tallest in the world in 1931–72.

Quotations

• For examples of the usage of this term see the citations page.