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 The Fortran Automatic Coding System for the IBM 704 (October 15, 1956), the first Programmer's Reference Manual for Fortran |
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| Usual file extensions | .f, .for, .f90, .f95 |
|---|---|
| Paradigm | multi-paradigm: procedural, imperative, structured, object-oriented |
| Appeared in | 1957 |
| Designed by | John Backus |
| Developer | John Backus & IBM |
| Stable release | Fortran 2003 (2003) |
| Typing discipline | strong, static |
| Major implementations | Absoft, Cray, GFortran, G95, IBM, Intel, Lahey/Fujitsu, Open Watcom, Pathscale, PGI, Silverfrost, Sun, XL Fortran, Visual Fortran, others |
| Influenced | ALGOL 58, BASIC, PL/I, C |
Fortran (previously FORTRAN)[1] is a general-purpose,[2] procedural,[3] imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing. Originally developed by IBM at their campus in south San Jose, California[4] in the 1950s for scientific and engineering applications, Fortran came to dominate this area of programming early on and has been in continual use for over half a century in computationally intensive areas such as numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), computational physics, and computational chemistry. It is one of the most popular languages in the area of high-performance computing and is the language used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.[5]
Fortran (a blend derived from The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System) encompasses a lineage of versions, each of which evolved to add extensions to the language while usually retaining compatibility with previous versions. Successive versions have added support for processing of character-based data (FORTRAN 77), array programming, modular programming and object-based programming (Fortran 90 / 95), and object-oriented and generic programming (Fortran 2003).
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In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a more practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM 704 mainframe computer. Backus' historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Lois Haibt and David Sayre.[6]
A draft specification for The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System was completed by mid-1954. The first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957. This was an optimizing compiler, because customers were reluctant to use a high-level programming language unless its compiler could generate code whose performance was comparable to that of hand-coded assembly language.
While the community was skeptical that this new method could possibly out-perform hand-coding, it reduced the number of programming statements necessary to operate a machine by a factor of 20, and quickly gained acceptance. Said creator John Backus during a 1979 interview with Think, the IBM employee magazine, "Much of my work has come from being lazy. I didn't like writing programs, and so, when I was working on the IBM 701, writing programs for computing missile trajectories, I started work on a programming system to make it easier to write programs."[7]
The language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate faster and more efficient code. The inclusion of a complex number data type in the language made Fortran especially suited to technical applications such as electrical engineering.
By 1960, versions of FORTRAN were available for the IBM 709, 650, 1620, and 7090 computers. Significantly, the increasing popularity of FORTRAN spurred competing computer manufacturers to provide FORTRAN compilers for their machines, so that by 1963 over 40 FORTRAN compilers existed. For these reasons, FORTRAN is considered to be the first widely used programming language supported across a variety of computer architectures.
The development of FORTRAN paralleled the early evolution of compiler technology; indeed many advances in the theory and design of compilers were specifically motivated by the need to generate efficient code for FORTRAN programs.
The initial release of FORTRAN for the IBM 704 contained 32 statements, including:
Search
DIMENSION and EQUIVALENCE statementsIF statement.[8]IF statements for checking exceptions (ACCUMULATOR OVERFLOW, QUOTIENT OVERFLOW, and DIVIDE CHECK); and IF statements for manipulating sense switches and sense lightsGOTO, computed GOTO, ASSIGN, and assigned GOTODO loopsFORMAT, READ, READ INPUT TAPE, WRITE, WRITE OUTPUT TAPE, PRINT, and PUNCHREAD TAPE, READ DRUM, WRITE TAPE, and WRITE DRUMEND FILE, REWIND, and BACKSPACEPAUSE, STOP, and CONTINUEFREQUENCY statement (for providing optimization hints to the compiler)[9].FORTRAN was provided for the IBM 1401 by an innovative 65-pass compiler that ran in only 8k of core. It kept the program in core and loaded overlays that gradually transformed it, in place, into executable form, as described by Haines et al.[10]. The executable form was not machine language; rather it was interpreted, anticipating UCSD Pascal P-code by two decades.
IBM's FORTRAN II appeared in 1958. The main enhancement was to support procedural programming by allowing user-written subroutines and functions. Six new statements were introduced:
SUBROUTINE, FUNCTION, and ENDCALL and RETURNCOMMONOver the next few years, FORTRAN II would also add support for the DOUBLE PRECISION and COMPLEX data types.
This program, for Heron's formula, reads one data card containing three 5-digit integers A, B, and C as input. If A, B, and C cannot represent the sides of a triangle in plane geometry, then the program's execution will end with an error code of "STOP 1". Otherwise, an output line will be printed showing the input values for A, B, and C, followed by the computed AREA of the triangle as a floating-point number with 2 digits after the decimal point.
C AREA OF A TRIANGLE WITH A STANDARD SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION C INPUT - CARD READER UNIT 5, INTEGER INPUT C OUTPUT - LINE PRINTER UNIT 6, REAL OUTPUT C INPUT ERROR DISPLAY ERROR OUTPUT CODE 1 IN JOB CONTROL LISTING READ (5, 501) IA, IB, IC 501 FORMAT (3I5) C IA, IB, AND IC MAY NOT BE NEGATIVE C FURTHERMORE, THE SUM OF TWO SIDES OF A TRIANGLE C IS GREATER THAN THE THIRD SIDE, SO WE CHECK FOR THAT, TOO IF (IA) 777, 777, 701 701 IF (IB) 777, 777, 702 702 IF (IC) 777, 777, 703 703 IF (IA+IB-IC) 777,777,704 704 IF (IA+IC-IB) 777,777,705 705 IF (IB+IC-IA) 777,777,799 777 STOP 1 C USING HERON'S FORMULA WE CALCULATE THE C AREA OF THE TRIANGLE 799 S = FLOATF (IA + IB + IC) / 2.0 AREA = SQRT( S * (S - FLOATF(IA)) * (S - FLOATF(IB)) * + (S - FLOATF(IC))) WRITE (6, 601) IA, IB, IC, AREA 601 FORMAT (4H A= ,I5,5H B= ,I5,5H C= ,I5,8H AREA= ,F10.2, + 13H SQUARE UNITS) STOP END
IBM also developed a FORTRAN III in 1958 that allowed for inline assembler code among other features; however, this version was never released as a product. Like the 704 FORTRAN and FORTRAN II, FORTRAN III included machine-dependent features that made code written in it unportable from machine to machine. Early versions of FORTRAN provided by other vendors suffered from the same disadvantage.
Starting in 1961, as a result of customer demands, IBM began development of a FORTRAN IV that removed the machine-dependent features of FORTRAN II (such as READ INPUT TAPE), while adding new features such as a LOGICAL data type, logical Boolean expressions and the logical IF statement as an alternative to the arithmetic IF statement. FORTRAN IV was eventually released in 1962, first for the IBM 7030 ("Stretch") computer, followed by versions for the IBM 7090 and IBM 7094.
By 1965, Fortran IV was supposed to be the "standard" and in compliance with American Standards Association X3.4.3 FORTRAN Working Group.[11]
Perhaps the most significant development in the early history of FORTRAN was the decision by the American Standards Association (now ANSI) to form a committee to develop an "American Standard Fortran." The resulting two standards, approved in March 1966, defined two languages, FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN IV, which had served as a de facto standard), and Basic FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN II, but stripped of its machine-dependent features). The FORTRAN defined by the first standard became known as FORTRAN 66 (although many continued to refer to it as FORTRAN IV, the language upon which the standard was largely based). FORTRAN 66 effectively became the first "industry-standard" version of FORTRAN. FORTRAN 66 included:
SUBROUTINE, FUNCTION, and BLOCK DATA program unitsINTEGER, REAL, DOUBLE PRECISION, COMPLEX, and LOGICAL data typesCOMMON, DIMENSION, and EQUIVALENCE statementsDATA statement for specifying initial valuesEXTERNAL (e.g., library) functionsGOTO, assigned GOTO, and computed GOTO statementsIF and arithmetic (three-way) IF statementsDO loopsREAD, WRITE, BACKSPACE, REWIND, and ENDFILE statements for sequential I/OFORMAT statementCALL, RETURN, PAUSE, and STOP statementsDATA and FORMAT statements, and as actual arguments to proceduresAfter the release of the FORTRAN 66 standard, compiler vendors introduced a number of extensions to "Standard Fortran", prompting ANSI in 1969 to begin work on revising the 1966 standard. Final drafts of this revised standard circulated in 1977, leading to formal approval of the new FORTRAN standard in April 1978. The new standard, known as FORTRAN 77, added a number of significant features to address many of the shortcomings of FORTRAN 66:
IF and END IF statements, with optional ELSE and ELSE IF clauses, to provide improved language support for structured programmingOPEN, CLOSE, and INQUIRE statements for improved I/O capabilityIMPLICIT statementCHARACTER data type, with vastly expanded facilities for character input and output and processing of character-based dataPARAMETER statement for specifying constantsSAVE statement for persistent local variablesLGE, LGT, LLE, LLT) for lexical comparison of strings, based upon the ASCII collating sequence.In this revision of the standard, a number of features were removed or altered in a manner that might invalidate previously standard-conforming programs. (Removal was the only allowable alternative to X3J3 at that time, since the concept of "deprecation" was not yet available for ANSI standards.) While most of the 24 items in the conflict list (see Appendix A2 of X3.9-1978) addressed loopholes or pathological cases permitted by the previous standard but rarely used, a small number of specific capabilities were deliberately removed, such as:
DIMENSION A(10,5)Y= A(11,1)An important practical extension to FORTRAN 77 was the release of MIL-STD-1753 in 1978. This specification, developed by the U. S. Department of Defense, standardized a number of features implemented by most FORTRAN 77 compilers but not included in the ANSI FORTRAN 77 standard. These features would eventually be incorporated into the Fortran 90 standard.
DO WHILE and END DO statementsINCLUDE statementIMPLICIT NONE variant of the IMPLICIT statementThe IEEE 1003.9 POSIX Standard, released in 1991, provided a simple means for Fortran-77 programmers to issue POSIX system calls. Over 100 calls were defined in the document — allowing access to POSIX-compatible process control, signal handling, file system control, device control, procedure pointing, and stream I/O in a portable manner.
The development of a revised standard to succeed FORTRAN 77 would be repeatedly delayed as the standardization process struggled to keep up with rapid changes in computing and programming practice. In the meantime, as the "Standard FORTRAN" for nearly fifteen years, FORTRAN 77 would become the historically most important dialect.
Control Data Corporation computers had another version of FORTRAN 77, called Minnesota FORTRAN, with variations in output constructs, special uses of COMMONs and DATA statements, optimizations code levels for compiling, and detailed error listings, extensive warning messages, and debugs.[12]
The much delayed successor to FORTRAN 77, informally known as Fortran 90 (and prior to that, Fortran 8X), was finally released as an ISO standard in 1991 and an ANSI Standard in 1992. This major revision added many new features to reflect the significant changes in programming practice that had evolved since the 1978 standard:
X(1:N)=R(1:N)*COS(A(1:N))WHERE statement for selective array assignmentRECURSIVE proceduresALLOCATABLE attribute and the ALLOCATE and DEALLOCATE statementsPOINTER attribute, pointer assignment, and NULLIFY statement to facilitate the creation and manipulation of dynamic data structuresEND DO statement for loop termination, and EXIT and CYCLE statements for "breaking out" of normal DO loop iterations in an orderly waySELECT . . . CASE construct for multi-way selectionUnlike the previous revision, Fortran 90 did not delete any features. (Appendix B.1 says, "The list of deleted features in this standard is empty.") Any standard-conforming FORTRAN 77 program is also standard-conforming under Fortran 90, and either standard should be usable to define its behavior.
A small set of features were identified as "obsolescent" and expected to be removed in a future standard.
| Obsolescent feature | Example | Status / 95 |
|---|---|---|
| Arithmetic IF-statement | IF (X) 10, 20, 30 |
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| Non-integer DO parameters or control variables | DO 9 X= 1.7, 1.6, -0.1 |
Deleted |
| Shared DO-loop termination or termination with a statement other than END DO or CONTINUE |
DO 9 J= 1, 10
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| Branching to END IF from outside a block |
66 GO TO 77 ; . . .
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Deleted |
| Alternate return | CALL SUBR( X, Y *100, *200 ) |
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| PAUSE statement | PAUSE 600 |
Deleted |
| ASSIGN statement and assigned GO TO statement |
100 . . .
|
Deleted |
| Assigned FORMAT specifiers | ASSIGN F TO 606 |
Deleted |
| H edit descriptors | 606 FORMAT ( 9H1GOODBYE. ) |
Deleted |
| Computed GO TO statement | GO TO (10, 20, 30, 40), index |
(Obso.) |
| Statement functions | FOIL( X, Y )= X**2 + 2*X*Y + Y**2 |
(Obso.) |
| DATA statements among executable statements |
X= 27.3
|
(Obso.) |
| CHARACTER* form of CHARACTER declaration | CHARACTER*8 STRING ! Use CHARACTER(8) |
(Obso.) |
| Assumed character length functions | ||
| Fixed form source code | * Column 1 contains * or ! or C for comments. C Column 6 for continuation. |
Fortran 95 was a minor revision, mostly to resolve some outstanding issues from the Fortran 90 standard. Nevertheless, Fortran 95 also added a number of extensions, notably from the High Performance Fortran specification:
FORALL and nested WHERE constructs to aid vectorizationPURE and ELEMENTAL proceduresA number of intrinsic functions were extended (for example a dim argument was added to the maxloc intrinsic).
Several features noted in Fortran 90 to be deprecated were removed from Fortran 95:
An important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report TR-15581: Enhanced Data Type Facilities, informally known as the Allocatable TR. This specification defined enhanced use of ALLOCATABLE arrays, prior to the availability of fully Fortran 2003-compliant Fortran compilers. Such uses include ALLOCATABLE arrays as derived type components, in procedure dummy argument lists, and as function return values. (ALLOCATABLE arrays are preferable to POINTER-based arrays because ALLOCATABLE arrays are guaranteed by Fortran 95 to be deallocated automatically when they go out of scope, eliminating the possibility of memory leakage. In addition, aliasing is not an issue for optimization of array references, allowing compilers to generate faster code than in the case of pointers.)
Another important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report TR-15580: Floating-point exception handling, informally known as the IEEE TR. This specification defined support for IEEE floating-point arithmetic and floating point exception handling.
In addition to the mandatory "Base language" (defined in ISO/IEC 1539-1 : 1997), the Fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules:
which, together, comprise the multi-part International Standard (ISO/IEC 1539).
According to the standards developers, "the optional parts describe self-contained features which have been requested by a substantial body of users and/or implementors, but which are not deemed to be of sufficient generality for them to be required in all standard-conforming Fortran compilers." Nevertheless, if a standard-conforming Fortran does provide such options, then they "must be provided in accordance with the description of those facilities in the appropriate Part of the Standard."
The most recent standard, Fortran 2003, is a major revision introducing many new features. A comprehensive summary of the new features of Fortran 2003 is available at the Fortran Working Group (WG5) official Web site.[13]
From that article, the major enhancements for this revision include:
VOLATILE attribute, explicit type specification in array constructors and allocate statements, pointer enhancements, extended initialization expressions, and enhanced intrinsic procedures.FLUSH statement, regularization of keywords, and access to error messages.An important supplement to Fortran 2003 was the ISO technical report TR-19767: Enhanced module facilities in Fortran. This report provided submodules, which make Fortran modules more similar to Modula-2 modules. They are similar to Ada private child subunits. This allows the specification and implementation of a module to be expressed in separate program units, which improves packaging of large libraries, allows preservation of trade secrets while publishing definitive interfaces, and prevents compilation cascades.
Efforts are underway to develop a revision to Fortran 2003, tentatively called Fortran 2008. As with Fortran 95, this is intended to be a minor upgrade, incorporating clarifications and corrections to Fortran 2003 and incorporating submodules from TR-19767 into the base language, as well as introducing a select few new capabilities. As of February 2007, the proposed new capabilities included[14].
In August 2007, the BIT data type was removed. In February 2008, Coarrays were scaled back: Parallel I/O and teams were removed.
A report as of June 2008 is available from the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG5 committee archive [15].
The complete original work plan is available at http://j3-fortran.org/doc/year/07/07-010.html. Information on Fortran standardization in general and progress on Fortran 2008 is at http://j3-fortran.org.
Since Fortran has been in use for more than fifty years, there is a vast body of Fortran in daily use throughout the scientific and engineering communities. It is the primary language for some of the most intensive supercomputing tasks, such as weather and climate modeling, computational fluid dynamics, computational chemistry, computational economics, plant breeding and computational physics. Even today, half a century later, many of the floating-point benchmarks to gauge the performance of new computer processors are still written in Fortran (e.g., CFP2006, the floating-point component of the SPEC CPU2006 benchmarks).
Portability was a problem in the early days because there was no agreed standard—not even IBM's reference manual—and computer companies vied to differentiate their offerings from others by providing incompatible features. Standards have improved portability. The 1966 standard provided a reference syntax and semantics, but vendors continued to provide incompatible extensions. Although careful programmers were coming to realize that use of incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems, and were therefore using programs such as The PFORT Verifier, it was not until after the 1977 standard, when the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) published FIPS PUB 69, that processors purchased by the U.S. Government were required to diagnose extensions of the standard. Rather than offer two processors, essentially every compiler eventually had at least an option to diagnose extensions.
Incompatible extensions were not the only portability problem. For numerical calculations, it is important to take account of the characteristics of the arithmetic. This was addressed by Fox et al. in the context of the 1966 standard by the PORT library. The ideas therein became widely used, and were eventually incorporated into the 1990 standard by way of intrinsic inquiry functions. The widespread (now almost universal) adoption of the IEEE 754 standard for binary floating-point arithmetic has essentially removed this problem.
Access to the computing environment (e.g. the program's command line, environment variables, textual explanation of error conditions) remained a problem until it was addressed by the 2003 standard.
Large collections of "library" software that could be described as being loosely related to engineering and scientific calculations, such as graphics libraries, have been written in C, and therefore access to them presented a portability problem. This has been addressed by incorporation of C interoperability into the 2003 standard.
It is now possible (and relatively easy) to write an entirely portable program in Fortran, even without recourse to a preprocessor.
Fortran 5 was a programming language marketed by Data General Corp in the late 1970s and early 80s, for the Nova, Eclipse, and MV line of computers. It had an optimizing compiler that was quite good for minicomputers of its time. The language most closely resembles Fortran 66. The name is a pun on the earlier Fortran IV.
Univac also offered a compiler for the 1100 series known as Fortran V. A spinoff of Univac Fortran V was Athena Fortran.
Fortran VI was a programming language distributed by Control Data Corporation in 1968 for the CDC 6600 series. The language was based upon Fortran IV.[16]
Vendors of high-performance scientific computers (e.g., Burroughs, CDC, Cray, Honeywell, IBM, Texas Instruments, and UNIVAC) added extensions to Fortran to take advantage of special hardware features such as instruction cache, CPU pipelines, and vector arrays. For example, one of IBM's FORTRAN compilers (H Extended IUP) had a level of optimization which reordered the machine code instructions to keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously. Another example is CFD, a special variant of Fortran designed specifically for the ILLIAC IV supercomputer, running at NASA's Ames Research Center. IBM Research Labs also developed an extended FORTRAN-based language called "VECTRAN" for processing of vectors and matrices.
Object-Oriented Fortran was an object-oriented extension of Fortran, in which data items can be grouped into objects, which can be instantiated and executed in parallel. It was available for Sun, Iris, iPSC, and nCUBE, but is no longer supported.
Such machine-specific extensions have either disappeared over time or have had elements incorporated into the main standards; the major remaining extension is OpenMP, which is a cross-platform extension for shared memory programming. One new extension, Co-array Fortran, is intended to support parallel programming.
"FOR TRANSIT" was the name of a reduced version of the IBM 704 FORTRAN language, which was implemented for the IBM 650, using a translator program developed at Carnegie [17] in the late 1950s. The following comment appears in the IBM Reference Manual ("FOR TRANSIT Automatic Coding System" C28-4038, Copyright 1957, 1959 by IBM):
The FORTRAN system was designed for a more complex machine than the 650, and consequently some of the 32 statements found in the FORTRAN Programmer's Reference Manual are not acceptable to the FOR TRANSIT system. In addition, certain restrictions to the FORTRAN language have been added. However, none of these restrictions make a source program written for FOR TRANSIT incompatible with the FORTRAN system for the 704.
The permissible statements were:
Up to ten subroutines could be used in one program.
FOR TRANSIT statements were limited to columns 7 thru 56, only. Punched cards were used for input and output on the IBM 650. Three passes were required to translate source code to the "IT" language, then to compile the IT statements into SOAP assembly language, and finally to produce the object program, which could then be loaded into the machine to run the program (using punched cards for data input, and outputting results onto punched cards.)
Two versions existed for the 650s with a 2000 word memory drum: FOR TRANSIT I (S) and FOR TRANSIT II, the latter for machines equipped with indexing registers and automatic floating point decimal (bi-quinary) arithmetic. Appendix A of the manual included wiring diagrams for the IBM 533 control panel.
Prior to FORTRAN 77, a number of preprocessors were commonly used to provide a friendlier language, with the advantage that the preprocessed code could be compiled on any machine with a standard FORTRAN compiler. Popular preprocessors included FLECS, MORTRAN, SFtran, S-Fortran, Ratfor, and Ratfiv. (Ratfor and Ratfiv, for example, implemented a remarkably C-like language, outputting preprocessed code in standard FORTRAN 66.[18])
LRLTRAN was developed at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to provide support for vector arithmetic and dynamic storage, among other extensions to support systems programming. The distribution included the LTSS operating system.
The Fortran-95 Standard includes an optional Part 3 which defines an optional conditional compilation capability. This capability is often referred to as "CoCo".
Many Fortran compilers have integrated subsets of the C preprocessor into their systems.
SIMSCRIPT is an application specific Fortran preprocessor for modeling and simulating large discrete systems.
F (programming language) was designed to be a clean subset of Fortran 95 that attempted to remove the redundant, unstructured, and deprecated features of Fortran, such as the EQUIVALENCE statement. F retains the array features added in Fortran 90, and removes control statements that were obsoleted by structured programming constructs added to both Fortran 77 and Fortran 90. F is described by its creators as "a compiled, structured, array programming language especially well suited to education and scientific computing." "F Programming Language Homepage". http://www.fortran.com/F/index.html.
The following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation and array-based operations, two features introduced with Fortran 90. Particularly noteworthy is the absence of DO loops and IF/THEN statements in manipulating the array; mathematical operations are applied to the array as a whole. Also apparent is the use of descriptive variable names and general code formatting that comport with contemporary programming style. This example computes an average over data entered interactively.
program average ! Read in some numbers and take the average ! As written, if there are no data points, an average of zero is returned ! While this may not be desired behavior, it keeps this example simple implicit none real, dimension(:), allocatable :: points integer :: number_of_points real :: average_points=0., positive_average=0., negative_average=0. write (*,*) "Input number of points to average:" read (*,*) number_of_points allocate (points(number_of_points)) write (*,*) "Enter the points to average:" read (*,*) points ! Take the average by summing points and dividing by number_of_points if (number_of_points > 0) average_points = sum(points) / number_of_points ! Now form average over positive and negative points only if (count(points > 0.) > 0) then positive_average = sum(points, points > 0.) / count(points > 0.) end if if (count(points < 0.) > 0) then negative_average = sum(points, points < 0.) / count(points < 0.) end if deallocate (points) ! Print result to terminal write (*,'(a,g12.4)') 'Average = ', average_points write (*,'(a,g12.4)') 'Average of positive points = ', positive_average write (*,'(a,g12.4)') 'Average of negative points = ', negative_average end program average
The sample programs can be compiled and run with any standard Fortran compiler.
For a programming language with a half-century legacy, FORTRAN has accumulated its share of jokes and folklore.
During the same Fortran Standards Committee meeting at which the name "FORTRAN 77" was chosen, a technical proposal was incorporated into the official distribution, bearing the title, "Letter O considered harmful". This proposal purported to address the confusion that sometimes arises between the letter "O" and the numeral zero, by eliminating the letter from allowable variable names. However, the method proposed was to eliminate the letter from the character set entirely (thereby retaining 48 as the number of lexical characters, which the colon had increased to 49).
This was considered beneficial in that it would promote structured programming, by making it impossible to use the notorious GO TO statement as before (Troublesome FORMAT statements would also be eliminated). However, it was also considered that this "might invalidate some existing programs" but that most of these "probably were non-conforming, anyway".[19][20]
CHARACTER data type.IF would consume 4 instruction words, require the constant Zero in a word of storage, and take 3 machine cycles to execute; using the Transfer instructions to implement the IF could be done in 1 to 3 instruction words, required no constants in storage, and take 1 to 3 machine cycles to execute. An optimizing compiler like FORTRAN would most likely select the more compact and usually faster Transfers instead of the Compare (use of Transfers also allowed the FREQUENCY statement to optimize IFs, which could not be done using the Compare). Also the Compare considered −0 and +0 to be different values while the Transfer Zero and Transfer Not Zero considered them to be the same.The fundamental unit of program is the basic block; a basic block is a stretch of program which has a single entry point and a single exit point. The purpose of section 4 is to prepare for section 5 a table of predecessors (PRED table) which enumerates the basic blocks and lists for every basic block each of the basic blocks which can be its immediate predecessor in flow, together with the absolute frequency of each such basic block link. This table is obtained by an actual "execution" of the program in Monte-Carlo fashion, in which the outcome of conditional transfers arising out of IF-type statements and computed GO TO'S is determined by a random number generator suitably weighted according to whatever FREQUENCY statements have been provided.
gzipped PostScript file, FTP.nag.co.ukWe have seen two further versions of the DO construct:
DO IF (logical-expr) EXIT block END DO
and
DO block IF (logical-expr) EXIT END DO
(both versions may be named). The EXIT statement provides a means
to exit from an otherwise endless loop. It may in fact go anywhere
in the loop. However, it is best for it to go either at the top or
at the end; the reader does not then have to search through the
loop to find the exit condition. Some purists might argue that the
EXIT should always be at the top of such a non-deterministic loop,
so that it is clear to a reader how a loop will end when she first
encounters it. The while-do construct of languages like Pascal
lends itself more readily to this convention. The way Fortran 90 is
designed makes it more natural to put the EXIT at the end. However,
I am sure you are old enough to decide for yourself! There is one
situation in which the EXIT must be at the top of the loop, and
this is when a zero trip count is logically possible. An example is
the original form of the guessing game above: if the user guesses
the number correctly first time, there should be no executions of
the DO block.
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The name is a portmanteau of Formula Translator/Translation
FORTRAN
Fortran is a programming language mainly used by the scientific community. Its name is a contraction of FORmula TRANslation, and its aim is to provide a way to tell computers to calculate complicated mathematical expressions, with more ease than assembly language.
FORTRAN is one of the earliest programming languages. The original versions used punched cards to write programs with. FORTRAN's age is both a strength and a weakness. On one hand, FORTRAN has a huge number of libraries of code available. However, Fortran also has many archaic features, especially in the earlier versions.
Fortran originally included a not-so-intuitive syntax, having fixed fields (a 5-digit line number, a continuation marker, and a statement area (plus a card sequence-number area on some versions). However, newer specifications for FORTRAN , such as Fortran 90, 95 and 2003 do not require such anachronistic formatting. In addition, many compilers have additional improvements for non-standard code. This book is intended to help write code compliant with the Fortran 95 standard. Some pieces of the 2003 standard are also included. The newer standards add functionality and attempt to be fully backward compatible. Where appropriate the differences in usage between these legacy versions and the modern standard will be highlighted as there is a significant code base written in older versions, specifically FORTRAN 77.
Contents |
If you have programmed before and would like to see a little bit of how Fortran works and is different from other programming languages, read this overview.
A quick overview of the differences between the 77, 90 and 95 and 2003 versions.
Fortran is a programming language first created in the 1950s. It is still in use today. It is a procedural language mainly used for scientific computing and numerical analysis.
The first FORTRAN compiler was created in 1954-57 by a team at IBM led by John W. Backus. This compiler was the first compiler for any High level language. The authors were worried that no one would use the language if programs written in it did not run nearly as fast as programs written in assembly language. So they made it an optimizing compiler.
Because of the heavy use by scientists doing numerical work the language grew in ways that encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that generated high quality (fast) code. There are many high performance compiler vendors. Much work and research in compiler theory and design was caused by the need to generate good code for Fortran programs.
Several revisions of the language have appeared, including the very well known FORTRAN IV (the same as FORTRAN 66), FORTRAN 77 and Fortran 90. The most recent formal standard for the language was published in 1997 and is known as Fortran 95.
Initially, the language relied on precise formatting of the source code and heavy use of statement numbers and goto statements.
Every version introduced 'modern' programming concepts, such as source code comments and output of text, IF-THEN-ELSE (in FORTRAN 77), recursion (in Fortran 90) and parallel constructs, while trying to maintain Fortran's 'lean' profile and high performance.
The name "Fortran" is short for "Formula Translation". The language was formerly known as FORTRAN (and older variants of it still are). Since Fortran 90, the capitalization has been abandoned. The published formal standards use "Fortran".
The two standards below reflect the current Fortran implementations.
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