A genius (plural genii or geniuses,[1] adjective ingenious) is a person, a body of work, or a singular achievement of surpassing excellence. More than just originality, creativity, or intelligence, genius is associated with achievement of insight which has transformational power. A work of genius fundamentally alters the expectations of its audience. Genius may be generalized, or be particular to a discrete field such as sports, statesmanship, science, or art.
Although difficult to quantify, genius is to a level of aptitude, capability, or achievement which exceeds even that of most other exceptional contemporaries in the same field. The normal distribution suggests that the term might be applied to phenomena ranked in the top 0.1%, i.e. three standard deviations or greater, among peers. In psychology, the inventor of the first IQ tests, Alfred Binet, applied the term to the top 0.1% of those tested.[2][3] This usage of the term is closely related to the general concept of intelligence.
The term may be also applied to someone who is considered gifted in many subjects[4] or in one subject.
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Intelligence testing was invented by Francis Galton and James McKeen Cattell, who had advocated reaction time and sensory acuity as measures of "neurophysiological efficiency" and that latter concept as a measure of intelligence.[5] By intelligence they meant a heritable trait, which was a general intelligence factor. Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometrics (among other kinds of metrics, such as fingerprinting), He was a fan of Charles Darwin, who showed that traits must be inherited before evolution can occur. Reasoning that eminence is caused by genetic traits he did a study of their heritability, publishing it in 1869 as Hereditary Genius. His method was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men. He found that the number of eminent relatives is greater with closer degree of kinship, indicating to him (since then debated) that a genetic trait is present in an eminent line of descent that is not present in other lines.
Galton's theories were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in statistics: Karl Friedrich Gauss and Adolphe Quetelet. Gauss discovered the normal distribution (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at random from a most frequent value, the "average", to two least frequent values at maximum differences greater and less than the most frequent value. Quetelet discovered that the bell-shaped curve applied to social statistics gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military. His initial work in criminology led him to observe "the greater the number of individuals observed the more do peculiarities become effaced ...." This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became "the average man."[6]
Himself a child prodigy, Galton was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as "an entire normal scheme"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will in theory perceive a syndrome straddled by "the average man" and flanked by persons that are different. In contrast to Quetelet, Galton's average man was not statistical, but was theoretical only. There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages. Setting out to discover a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational statistics and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in mathematics grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for Sandhurst.
Galton now departed from Gauss in a way that became crucially significant to the history of the 20th century AD. The bell-shaped curve was not random, he concluded. The differences between the average and the upper end were due to a non-random factor, "natural ability", which he defined as "those qualities of intellect and disposition, which urge and qualify men to perform acts that lead to reputation ... a nature which, when left to itself, will, urged by an inherent stimulus, climb the path that leads to eminence."[7] The apparent randomness of the scores were due to the randomness of this natural ability in the population as a whole, in theory.
Galton was looking for a combination of differences that would reveal "the existence of grand human animals, of natures preeminantly noble, of individuals born to be kings of men." Galton's selection of terms influenced Binet: geniuses for those born to be kings of men and "idiots and imbeciles", two English pejoratives, for those at the other extreme of the "normal scheme."[8] Darwin read and espoused Galton's work. Galton went on to develop the field of eugenics.
In Ancient Rome, the genius was the guiding or "tutelary" spirit of a person, or even of an entire gens, the plural of which was 'genii'[9].
Genius is expressed in a variety of forms, such as mathematical genius, literary genius, scientific genius and philosophical genius amongst others. Genius may show itself in early childhood as a prodigy or later in life; either way, geniuses eventually differentiate themselves from the others through great originality. Geniuses often have crisp, clear-eyed visions of given situations, in which interpretation is unnecessary, and they build or act on the basis of those facts, usually with tremendous energy. Accomplished geniuses in intellectual fields start out in many cases as child prodigies, gifted with superior memory or understanding.
A controversial hypothesis called multiple intelligences put forth by Harvard University professor Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind states there are at least seven types of intelligences, each with its own type of genius.
The only currently acceptable scientific way of determining one's intelligence is with an intelligence quotient (better known as IQ) test. Two among the most influential psychologists studying intelligence, Lewis M. Terman and Leta Hollingworth, suggested two different numbers when considering the cut-off for genius in psychometric terms. Dr. Terman considered it to be an IQ of 140, while Dr. Hollingworth put it at an IQ of 180.[10][11]
Moreover, both these numbers are ratio IQs, which in deviation values used currently put the genius IQ cut-off at 136 (98.77th percentile) and 162 (99.994th percentile) respectively.[12] There are also several examples of people with IQ levels in the genius range who have a disability or very low level in one of the subcategories, such as music.
In addition to the fundamental criticism that intelligence measured in this way is an example of reification and ranking fallacies,[13] the IQ test has also been criticized as having a "cultural bias" in its interpretation despite assurances that these tests are designed to eliminate race/gender for example by predicting numerical sequences, and other culture free measures, and using statistical methodology such as Differential item functioning to eliminate test bias.
Accordingly, the definition of genius can include those who do not necessarily have an IQ test score of this stature, or who have not even taken such a test. Popular assessment of genius often relies not only on a vast intellect, but also upon a combination of an incredible ability to understand complex issues and problems, a profound creativity and imagination, and the ability to channel such skills into productive outlets.[citation needed]
Various philosophers have proposed definitions of what genius is and what that implies in the context of their philosophical theories.
In the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, a genius is someone, in whom intellect predominates over "will" much more than within the average person. In Schopenhauer's aesthetics, this predominance of the intellect over the will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer. Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display maladaptive traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars.
| “ | Talent hits a target no one else can hit; Genius hits a target no one else can see. | ” |
In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, genius is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. For Kant, originality was the essential character of genius.[14] This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the Critique of Judgement and was well received by the Romantics of the early 19th century.
In the philosophy of David Hume, the way society perceives genius is similar to the way society perceives the ignorant. Hume states that a person with the characteristics of a genius is looked at as a person disconnected from society, as well as a person who works remotely, at a distance, away from the rest of the world. "On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy."
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A genius is an individual who successfully applies a previously unknown technique in the production of a work of art, science or calculation, or who masters and personalizes a known technique. A genius typically possesses great intelligence or remarkable abilities in a specific subject, or shows an exceptional natural capacity of intellect and/or ability, especially in the production of creative and original work, something that has never been seen or evaluated previously.
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GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere), a term which originally meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to him at his birth. As a creative principle the genius is restricted to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the protector of generation and of parturition (tutela gene. andi, pariendi), although the female appears less prominent. It is the genius of the paterfamilias that keeps the marriage bed, named after him lectus genialis and dedicated to him, under his special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual self, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man's character and mode of. life (Horace, Epistles, ii. 2.187). The responsibility for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two genii for man, the one good and the other bad (6,-ya80balµwv, xaxo&al,uwv), an idea borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism, always endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands, and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. 2; Ovid, Tristia, iii. 13.18). As the representative of a man's higher self and participating in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person could take an oath by his own or some one else's genius. When under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, not however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, C.I.L. i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus, the genius publicus Populi Romani - probably distinct from the genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex (Genie. .. sive mas sive femina) - stood in the forum near the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of the house, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October. There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators, standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally (genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque exercitus) . In imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local genii became an expression for the universality of the divinum numen and were sometimes identified with the higher gods. The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, Aen. v. 95; Persius i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one offering sacrifice.
See W. H. Roscher, Lexikon der Mythologie, and article by J. A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites, where full references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. Preller, Reimische Mythologie, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, Religion and Kultur der Reimer. Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural "genii" (with a singular "genie") is used in English, as equivalent to the Arabic jinn, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are described, for instance, in The Arabian Nights. But "genius" itself has become the regular English word for the highest conceivable form of original ability, something altogether extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess, and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent," which is usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the term "genius" is confined. The attempt, however, to define either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions of genius - such as Carlyle's "transcendant capacity of taking trouble, first of an,"' in which the last three words are usually forgotten - are either admittedly incomplete or are of the nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement. The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, have shown remarkable originality, which may be described as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such physical abnormality can be observed. The word "genius" itself however has only gradually been used in English to express the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of the normal human being in creative work; and it is a convenient term(like Nietzsche's "superman") for application to those rare individuals who in the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term (with the analogy of the Greek baiµwv), and in the 16th and 17th centuries we find it equivalent simply to "distinctive character or spirit," a meaning still commonly given to the word. The more modern sense is not even mentioned in Johnson's Dictionary, and represents an 18th-century development, primarily due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of "distinctive natural capacity or endowment" had gradually been applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to the results of education and study, and the antithesis has extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of "talent," until we now speak of the exceptional person not merely as having genius but as "a genius." This phraseology appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage, and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit.
Modern theories on the nature of "genius" should be studied with considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting and thought-provoking in such works as J. F. Nisbet's Insanity of Genius (1891), Sir Francis Galton's Hereditary Genius (new ed., 1892), and C. Lombroso's Man of Genius (Eng. trans., 1891).
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From Latin genius (“‘the guardian spirit of a person, spirit, inclination, wit, genius, literally 'inborn nature'’”) < gignere (“‘to beget, produce’”), OL. genere, the root gen; see genus.
genius (plural: genii (classical Roman mythology) or geniuses (colloquial))
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From Latin gens, household, clan, tribe + suffix -ius.
This definition is lacking an etymology or has an incomplete etymology. You can help Wiktionary by giving it a proper etymology.
genius (genitive geniī); m, second declension
Second declension (2).
| Number | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| nominative | genius | geniī |
| genitive | geniī | geniōrum |
| dative | geniō | geniīs |
| accusative | genium | geniōs |
| ablative | geniō | geniīs |
| vocative | genie | geniī |
was one of the world’s most famous geniuses and a polymath.]]
A genius is a person who is exceptionally intelligent. People may have different ideas of how clever one has to be in order to be called a “genius”. A genius may be extremely clever at maths or science or games such as chess, or they may be creative geniuses who are brilliant writers, musicians or artists.
Albert Einstein is perhaps the world’s most famous genius. He was extraordinarily good at math, but in other areas, such as languages, he was not particularly good. Leonardo da Vinci and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe were geniuses who can also be described as polymaths because they were brilliant in lots of different subjects. Geniuses are usually child prodigies, i.e., they already show they are a genius when they are young children.
Genius is not quite the same as talent. Talent means the ability to learn a particular skill very quickly. A genius, on the other hand, is also very creative and able to do things that no one else has thought of.
Some geniuses, such as Goethe, are very sensible, reliable people who are good at organizing their lives. However, there are many geniuses who have unusual personalities. They may be very absent-minded, they may not have much common sense, or they may suffer at times from depression and changes of mood.
   | Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses - Estimated IQs of the Greatest Geniuses |
| | Brainteaser: Scientists Dissect Mystery of Genius - CNN.com - Brainteaser: Scientists dissect mystery of genius - Sep 12, 2006 |
| | Children Above 180 IQ: Standford-Binet Origin and Development, by Leta Stetter Hollingworth - Amazon.com: Children Above 180 IQ: Standford-Binet Origin and Development (Italian American Experience): Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Books |
| | The Outsiders (A look at the genius condition) - The Prometheus Society > Articles > The Outsiders |
| | How Geniuses Work - HowStuffWorks "How Geniuses Work" |
| | Artistic Genius and Temperament - Artistic Genius and Temperament |
| | Study: Gifted children especially vulnerable to effects of bullying - Study: Gifted children especially vulnerable to effects of bullying |
| | Book review of George Leonard's ''Education and Ecstasy'' - Education & Ecstasy - BestStudentViolins.com |
| | link "Encarta:prodigy" - prodigy definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta |
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