From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of the
Zliten mosaic from
Libya (Leptis Magna), circa 80-100 CE. It shows (left to right) a
thraex fighting a
murmillo, a
hoplomachus standing with another
murmillo (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and one of a matched pair.
.^ These views provoked suspicion among the Jewish authorities who rejected the group and fear among the Roman authorities who perceived these sentiments as a threat to the Empire."- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ It was Spartacus who told us to throw away our own gear and strip the armor off the legionaries, to arm ourselves as soldiers, not gladiators.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Proximo hauls Maximus and Juba off as Vibius and the other gladiators arm themselves -- INT. TUNNELS - NIGHT Proximo is leading Maximus and Juba quickly through a decaying cramped tunnel.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ LUCILLA: There are some politicians who have dedicated their lives to Rome .- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ EXT. PROVINCIAL ARENA - DUGOUT - DAY In the cramped holding area of the arena, a dugout beneath the stands, Maximus and the other gladiators are waiting.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Maximus stands in the midst of all the gladiators who triumphantly fought and beat the Legionnaires.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death.
.^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ MAXIMUS: How soon do you think they could be ready to fight?- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Hannibal, when he got tired of fighting Rome, he could pack up his army and go home to Carthage.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.
The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate.
.^ During this Webquest you will use the Internet to learn more about Roman life, history, religion, government, and art.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ THE ROMANISATION OF BRITAIN NEW! http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/roman/life_index.htm Information on the Roman conquest of Britain and Roman life there.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
.^ Gladiators only fight in the games.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The rules for each game are given where they are known.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ GLADIATORS – 50 AD http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gladiators.htm "The Roman philosopher Seneca took a dim view of gladiatorial contests and the spectacle that accompanied them.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
Gladiatorial games
Origins
Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games.
[1][2] In the late 1st century BCE
Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were
Etruscan.
[3] A generation later,
Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BCE by the
Campanians in celebration of their victory over the
Samnites.
[4] .^ GLADIATORS – 50 AD http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gladiators.htm "The Roman philosopher Seneca took a dim view of gladiatorial contests and the spectacle that accompanied them.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ GLADIATOR: DRESSED TO KILL GAME NEW! http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/launch_gms_gladiator.shtml An online game in which students dress a gladiator to fight in the arena.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ INT./ EXT. SLAVE WAGON - ROMAN STREETS - DAY Maximus and the other gladiators are in a slave cart on the way from the arena.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[5] .^ "Students will ● discuss the role of public entertainment in ancient Rome; ● imagine themselves as a participant at a gladiator games at the Roman Colosseum; and ● write a personal account of the games."- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ On "The Gladiators War" she says, "Varro was the most erudite Roman author of his day, and probably did write a history of the Spartacus war."- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ On "The Gladiators War" she says, "Varro was the most erudite Roman author of his day, and probably did write a history of the Spartacus war."- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ CALENDARS THROUGH THE AGES – EARLY ROMAN CALENDAR NEW! http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-roman.html Information on the Roman calendar, its history, how you read it and more.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[6]Reappraisal of the evidence supports a Campanian origin – or at least a borrowing – for the games and gladiators.
[7][8] .^ GLADIATORS: ROME’S VIOLENT PAST – LESSON PLAN NEW! http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/gladiators/ A lesson plan on Roman gladiators for grades 8-12.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[9][10] .^ We'll show these Roman dogs how gladiators fight!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Be the Gladiator Champion and fight all the challenger as a slave fighter in the Colosseum in this gladiator fighting game.- Play Game at Tailedfox Games - Gladiator 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.tailedfox.com [Source type: General]
^ As one team of gladiators descends on the platform lift, Proximo's gladiators are selecting helmets and receiving spears.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[11] Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative and late. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BCE.
[12].^ Gladiators have arrived in Rome for their first time.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ GLADIATORS: ROME’S VIOLENT PAST – LESSON PLAN NEW! http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/gladiators/ A lesson plan on Roman gladiators for grades 8-12.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ MAP OF ROMAN TRADE ROUTES NEW! http://intranet.dalton.org/groups/rome/RMap2.html A map of trade routes in the first century AD. Good .- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
Decimus Iunius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome's 'cattle market' Forum (
Forum Boarium) to honour his dead father, Brutus Pera. This is described as
munus (plural
munera): a commemorative duty owed the
manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants.
[13][14] The gladiator type used (according to a single, later source), was Thracian.
[15] but the development of the
munus and its
gladiator types was most strongly influenced by Samnium's support for
Hannibal and subsequent punitive expeditions by Rome and her Campanian allies; the earliest and most frequently mentioned type was the
Samnite.
[16][17][18]
The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms.
.^ ASSASSIN #1 You two take him down there where no one will find him.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The centurion was just waiting there in the center of the ring while the other one was wearing himself out circling around him, afraid to close in.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ But when Spartacus heard what Varinius was saying about crucifixion, he looked over the Roman prisoners, then said to me, "We have at least two hundred pairs here.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The soldiers rise as he approaches, looking at him with respect, addressing him with admiration as they call out his name, "General" -- He passes through the ranks with a smile as he greets the soldiers.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
The
Dictator, as decreed by the
senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour.
.^ So its not true that Spartacus made Roman prisoners fight each other as gladiators?- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ We taught them, we gladiators did, how to hold a sword, how to use it, how to kill Romans.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
(Livy 9.40)
[19]
.^ We'll show these Roman dogs how gladiators fight!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ "Students will ● discuss the role of public entertainment in ancient Rome; ● imagine themselves as a participant at a gladiator games at the Roman Colosseum; and ● write a personal account of the games."- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[20] His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the Gods.
.^ "Students will ● discuss the role of public entertainment in ancient Rome; ● imagine themselves as a participant at a gladiator games at the Roman Colosseum; and ● write a personal account of the games."- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ It also becomes useful to have some old stalwarts of the silver screen to play some smallez-yet equally vital roles.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome.
[21] .^ Gladiators only fight in the games.- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[22]
Development
In 216 BCE
Marcus Ameilius Lepidus, late
consul and
augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of
gladiatora munera in the
Forum Romanum, using twenty-two pairs of gladiators.
[23] Ten years later,
Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative
munus in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. High status non-Romans – and possibly Romans too – volunteered as his gladiators.
[24] .^ TIMELINE ANCIENT ROME http://www.exovedate.com/ancient_timeline_one.html A timeline of Roman history from 2000 BCE to 300 CE. Each era discussed includes events and people of the times and extensive links.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ Wounds are bandaged and tankards are raised in celebration of the victory.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ ANCIENT ROME HOTLINKS – A GATEWAY SITE http://members.aol.com/TeacherNet/AncientRome.html#Early A full page of links on Ancient Rome.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[25] The next recorded
munus, held for the funeral of
Publius Liciniusin 183 BCE, was more extravagant.
.^ Gladiators only fight in the games.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[27].^ I shall remain in Rome and show them how they are loved.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ We'll show these Roman dogs how gladiators fight!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ A Virtual Place: The center and home of VRoma's virtual community is an online "place," a virtual learning environment built upon a spatial and cultural metaphor of ancient Rome.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
By 174 BCE 'small' Roman
munera (private or public), provided by an
editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording:
[28]
Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond the rest — that of
Titus Flamininus which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances.
.^ You know, when youre a gladiator, they send you around on the circuit to the big shows: Capua, Pompeii, Rome.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[29]
In 105 BCE, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state-sponsored "
barbarian combat" demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of a training program for the military. It proved immensely popular.
[30] The
ludi (state games), sponsored by the ruling elite and dedicated to the
numen of a deity such as
Jupiter, a divine or heroic ancestor (and later, during the
Imperium, the
emperor),
[31] could now compete with privately funded
munera for popular support.
[32]Peak
.^ "Students will ● discuss the role of public entertainment in ancient Rome; ● imagine themselves as a participant at a gladiator games at the Roman Colosseum; and ● write a personal account of the games."- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[33][34] .^ The slave who became a gladiator.- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Overall, the movie is essentially a triumph of the imagination and a warning to those who believe that some things are just too big to be made into a film.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ We could have waited them out, but we were getting hungrier, and sooner or later their reinforcements might show up.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[35][36] Sulla, during his term as
praetor, showed his usual acumen in breaking his own
sumptuary laws to give the most lavish
munus yet seen in Rome, on occasion of his wife's funeral.
[37]
Recreation of a combat between a
thraex and
murmillo in the
Carnuntum Roman ruins.
.^ THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT – MAP NEW! http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/maps/basicmap.html A clickable map of the Roman Empire at its largest.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
With exceptions, a gladiator fought in two to five bouts a year, with each lasting around 15 minutes
Ownership of gladiators or a gladiator school gave muscle and flair to Roman politics.
[38][39][40] .^ What I don't know is how such a great empire that started with me, Julius Caesar, fell after almost 500 years in power.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ It was the other one who died in the gamesVarinius, I think his name was.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ MAXIMUS Caesar, I am honored but -- MARCUS For twenty years I have been spilling blood.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used three hundred and twenty gladiator pairs in silvered armour.
[41] .^ School children all over the world want to learn more about ancient Rome, but they need your expertise in their quest for information.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ If you don't mind a little gore, and you appreciate damn good acting & dialog, paired with an extremely interesting story, then see Gladiator -- you won't be sorry..- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Sections: Background Information; Public Health in Ancient Rome; Medicine and the Roman Army; Galen’s Medical Developments; Investigations into Roman Health and more.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[42] Caesar's showmanship was unprecedented not only in scale and expense but in putting aside a Republican tradition of
munera as funeral offerings.
[43] The practical differences between
ludi and
munera were beginning to blur.
[44]Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the Republic and beyond.
[45] Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BCE attempted but signally failed to curb their political usefulness to sponsors.
[46] Following Caesar's assassination and the
civil war,
Augustus assumed Imperial authority over the
ludi and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty.
[47] .^ We gave the same lesson to the Romans, to teach them what would happen if they didnt give us a good show.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
Munera were restricted to the
ludi of
Saturnalia and
Quinquatria.
[48] The ceiling cost for a
praetor's "economical" but official
munus of a maximum 120 gladiators was to be 25,000 denarii ($500,000).
.^ He's my finest, I couldn't let him go as part of the lot for less than 9,000 total...- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ TRAINER #3 It'll cost you -- PROXIMO I won't do it for less than 100,000 sesterces -- !- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[49][50] Throughout the Empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state-sponsored
Imperial cult, which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the Emperor, his law, and his agents.
[51] Between 108 and 109 CE,
Trajan celebrated his
Dacian victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators (and 11,000 animals) over 123 days.
[52] .^ And Maximus takes control, we see the General of the Felix Regiment gloriously alive again as he barks out orders and leads his gladiators in battle.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Inside, Commodus and Lucilla, as they make their way to their father, Marcus Aurelius .- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Although I fear in my deepest heart that if you had truly been my son my blood would have polluted you as it did Commodus.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ MARCUS: Commodus, [holding his fingers to his lips, "shhhhh" ; he kneels in front of his son] your faults as a son, is my failure as a father.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[53]The Gladiators
The trade in gladiators was Empire-wide, and subjected to strict official control.
.^ Others believe that Rome is an Empire that can only be run by a strong central figure who is willing to lead it out of this state of crisis.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
.^ The following day, gladiators are training inside the gladiator school.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The basic training was a lot like the gladiator schools, but Spartacus went further than that.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ I have to say while colorful, if these were real gladiators in ancient times I don't think they would have lasted long in the arena.- Gladiators Return to Ancient Rome in Gay Show of Force - Towleroad, More than gay news. More gay men 15 September 2009 22:10 UTC www.towleroad.com [Source type: General]
[54][55] The best – the most robust – were sent to Rome.
.^ The slave who became a gladiator.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It was Spartacus who told us to throw away our own gear and strip the armor off the legionaries, to arm ourselves as soldiers, not gladiators.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ You will also be provided with an opportunity to learn how life in ancient Greece was was vastly different for males, females, soldiers, and athletes.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
[56].^ Then we staged another set of games in the Capuan arena, the same place so many of us had fought as slaves.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The lady Lucilla bought all my gladiators two hours ago!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ We knew fighting from the gladiator school, but most of us had never heard of tactics.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[58] The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian
munus of
Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.
[24] .^ GLADIATORS: ROME’S VIOLENT PAST – LESSON PLAN NEW! http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/gladiators/ A lesson plan on Roman gladiators for grades 8-12.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
.^ We knew fighting from the gladiator school, but most of us had never heard of tactics.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Maximus and the other gladiators leave the arena to be returned to the underground cells.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ TRAINER #3 It'll cost you -- PROXIMO I won't do it for less than 100,000 sesterces -- !- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[59] .^ Morituri thats what we called ourselves in the gladiator arena, men who are going to die.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Overall, the movie is essentially a triumph of the imagination and a warning to those who believe that some things are just too big to be made into a film.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[61]
Legal and social status
"He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword." The gladiator's oath as cited by Petronius (Satyricon, 117).
.^ MAXIMUS I have more power as a slave in the arena than I could ever have as a free man.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Citizens were legally exempt from this sentence but could be stripped of citizenship, formally declared slaves and dealt with accordingly. Freedmen or freedwomen could be legally reverted to slavery.
[63][64]
Offences against the state merited the most humiliating punishments.
[65] By the 1st century BCE, offenders judged to be
noxii – obnoxious to the state – were being condemned to the beasts (
damnati ad bestias) in the arena, with almost no chance of survival, or were made to kill each other.
[66] From the early Imperial era, some were forced to participate in humiliating and novel forms of mythological or historical enactment, culminating in their execution.
[67][68].^ Beautiful prostitutes throw their arms around the gladiators, whispering in their ears as they pass.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
These
damnati at least might put on a good show and retrieve some respect.
.^ Not for what they did, but what they might do.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ And tomorrow Ill be going back in the arena again so Roman crowds can see the last surviving Spartacanus fight to the death, even if he is an old man.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
Some may even have become "proper" gladiators.
[69]
Modern customs and institutions offer few useful parallels to the legal and social context which defined the
gladiatoria munera[70] Under law, anyone condemned to the arena or the gladiator schools (
ad ludum) was a
servus poenae under sentence of death unless manumitted.
[71] A
rescript of Hadrian reminded magistrates that "those sentenced to the sword" should be despatched immediately "or at least within the year". Those sentenced to the
ludi should not be discharged before five years or three years if awarded
manumission.
[72]The phenomenon of the "volunteer" gladiator is more problematic. All contracted volunteers, including those of equestrian and senatorial class, were legally enslaved by their
auctoratio because it involved their potentially lethal submission to a master.
[73] Nor does the citizen or free volunteer's "professional" status translate into modern terms.
.^ All this can belong to the select few who prove their worth in the arena.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Payment for such appearances compounded their
infamia.
[74] .^ He ordered the looting to stop, but the whole army ignored him, even most of the Samnites once they realized they were missing out on the best plunder.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
They could not vote, plead in court nor leave a will; unless they were manumitted, their lives and property belonged to their masters.
[75] Nevertheless there is evidence of informal if not entirely lawful practices to the contrary. Some "unfree" gladiators bequeathed money and personal property to wives and children, possibly via a sympathetic owner or
familia; some had slaves and gave them their freedom.
[76] .^ This one was arrogant even for a Roman.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ I would rather live as the lowest class of Roman citizen than remain in exile, even as the ruler of the world.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[77]The most admired
auctorati – those who had re-enlisted following manumission
[78] – may have had little practical choice.
.^ They look more like Aztecs than Roman gladiators.- Gladiators Return to Ancient Rome in Gay Show of Force - Towleroad, More than gay news. More gay men 15 September 2009 22:10 UTC www.towleroad.com [Source type: General]
^ He was holding off Spartacus assault, but when the Romans saw the gates open behind them and a horde of gladiators charging out, they panicked and broke.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ I had thirty thousand men under my command, all Gauls and Germans, wed beaten the Romans before, we could beat them again.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[79].^ On one side of the compound is a series of cages filled with wild animals of every description -- including Proximo's two hapless giraffes.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[80] Under Augustus, senators and equestrians and their descendants were formally excluded from the
infamia of association with the arena and its personnel
(arenarii). However some magistrates – and some later Emperors – tacitly or openly condoned such transgressions and some volunteers were prepared to embrace the resulting loss of status. Some did so for payment, some for military glory and – in one recorded case – for personal honour.
[81][82] In 11 CE Augustus, who enjoyed the games, bent his own rules and allowed equestrians to volunteer because "the prohibition was no use".
[83] Under
Tiberius, the Larinum decree
[84] (19 CE) reiterated the laws which Augustus himself had waived. Thereafter
Caligula flouted them and
Claudius strengthened them.
Nero and
Commodus ignored them.
Valentinian II, some hundreds of years later, protested against the same infractions and repeated similar laws: his was an officially Christian empire.
[85][86][87]
One very notable, social renegade was an aristocratic descendant of the
Gracchi, infamous for his marriage (as a bride) to a male horn player. He made a voluntary and "shameless" arena appearance not only as a lowly
retiarius tunicatus but in woman's attire and a conical hat adorned with gold ribbon. In Juvenal's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self-display, applause and the disgrace he inflicted on his more sturdy opponent by repeatedly skipping away from the confrontation.
[88]Emperors as "gladiators"
Caligula, Titus, Hadrian,
Lucius Verus,
Caracalla,
Geta and
Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena (either in public or private) but risks to themselves were minimal.
[89] Claudius – characterised by his historians as morbidly cruel and boorish – fought a whale trapped in the harbor in front of a group of spectators.
[90] Commentators invariably disapproved of such performances.
[91]Commodus was a fanatical participant at the
ludi, much to the shame of the senate — whom he loathed — and the probable delight of the populace at large.
.^ Hes the one Spartacus killed in the arena?- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ EXT. OLIVE GROVE - DAY Maximus is galloping up a hill, leading only one horse now.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ EXT. COLOSSEUM - ARENA - DAY Vibius defeats an opponent -- he stands over him.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Taking a step back, he moves forward again and removes the swords only to take a scissor-cut to the neck as he decapitates the opponent's head.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It is my design that they will elect the next Emperor.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ His sword held behind his head with both hands, as though to be resting his head, slowly turns to Gracchus.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[92] .^ No one could say we werent a real army, a hundred thousand men strong, all armed and equipped and trained.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By that time we had almost thirty thousand men, slaves and free men, too, joining us.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Id thought that Id wanted to be a commander, lead an army of my own, but Id learned better and almost lost thirty thousand men doing it.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
For this, he drew a gigantic stipend from the public purse.
[93] Perhaps to explain both his obsession and administrative incompetence, gossips suggested that his mother,
Faustina the Younger, had conceived him with a gladiator.
[94]
Schools and training
Model of Rome's Great Gladiatorial Training School (
Ludus Magnus).
The earliest named gladiator school (s.
ludus; pl.
ludi) is that of Aurelius Scaurus at Capua – he was
lanista of the gladiators employed by the state ca 105 BCE to instruct the legions and simultaneously entertain the public.
[95] Few other
lanistae are known by name: they were head of their
familia gladiatoria, with legal power over life and death of every family member, including
servi poenae,
auctorati and ancillaries but socially they were
infames, on a footing with pimps and butchers and despised as price gougers.
[96][97] No such stigma attached to a gladiator owner (
munerarius or
editor) of good family, high status and independent means;
[98] Cicero congratulated his friend Atticus on buying a splendid troop – if he rented them out, he might recover their entire cost after two performances.
[99]Following the Spartacus Revolt and the political exploitation of
munera, legislation progressively restricted the ownership, siting and organisation of the schools. By
Domitian's time, many had been more or less absorbed by the State, including those at
Pergamum,
Alexandria,
Praeneste and Capua.
[100] .^ WOMEN GLADIATORS? http://www.ludus.org.uk/r/essaywomen.html An essay on the evidence for women gladiators in ancient Rome.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ The blacksmith begins slamming shackles on the gladiator's wrists -- chaining them together in teams of two by a chain about four feet long.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[101]Volunteers required a magistrate's permission to join a school as
auctorati.
[102] If this was granted, the school's physician assessed their suitability.
.^ How soon could they be ready to fight?- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
^ MAXIMUS: How soon do you think they could be ready to fight?- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
A condemned bankrupt or debtor accepted as
novicius could negotiate for partial or complete debt payment by his
lanista or
editor. Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled
auctorati, Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000
sesterces.
[103]All prospective gladiators – whether volunteer or condemned – swore the same oath (
sacramentum).
[104] .^ He was the richest man in Rome, so he could afford to pay for volunteers, retired legionaries to fight under his command.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[105] They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (s.
palus) in which
primus palus was the highest.
[106] Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools – weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used. Fighting styles were probably learned through constant rehearsal as choreographed "numbers". An elegant, economical style was preferred. Training included preparation for a stoical, unflinching death. Successful training required intense commitment.
[107]Those condemned
ad ludum were probably branded or marked with tattoos (
stigma) on the face, legs and/or hands. Their
stigma may have been text – habitually fugitive slaves were marked thus on the forehead until Constantine banned facial stigma in 325 CE. Soldiers were marked on the hand.
[108].^ Maximus and the other gladiators leave the arena to be returned to the underground cells.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The rules for each game are given where they are known.- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ I know that most players use aion kina to get a shiny cool weapon like other players in game.
^ He ordered the looting to stop, but the whole army ignored him, even most of the Samnites once they realized they were missing out on the best plunder.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[109] Discipline could be extreme, even lethal.
[110] Remains of a Pompeian
ludus site attest to developments in supply, demand and discipline; in its earliest phase, the building could accommodate 15–20 gladiators. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible.
[111]
Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their
lanista and were otherwise well cared for. Their high-energy, vegetarian diet combined barley, boiled beans, oatmeal, ash (believed to help fortify the body) and dried fruit. Compared to modern athletes, they were probably overweight, but this may have "protected their vital organs from the cutting blows of their opponents". The same research suggests they may have fought barefoot.
[112][113]Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regime.
.^ PROXIMO All the old gladiator schools have tunnels to the Colosseum -- most have long since collapsed -- JUBA How did they know?- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The following day, gladiators are training inside the gladiator school.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The basic training was a lot like the gladiator schools, but Spartacus went further than that.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[114][115]Combat
In early munera, death was considered the proper outcome of combat. Later, known gladiators often fought in matches advertised
sine missione (without release [from the sentence of death]), which suggests that
missio had become common by that time. The contract between
editor and
lanista could include compensation for unexpected deaths.
[116] As the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, matches
sine missione were officially banned, a pragmatic Augustan decision that also happened to reflect popular demands for "natural justice". Refusals by Caligula and Claudius to spare popular but defeated fighters did nothing to boost their own popularity.
.^ Maximus stands in the midst of all the gladiators who triumphantly fought and beat the Legionnaires.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[117]Spectators expected a legitimate and definite conclusion to the
munus.
.^ The Greek military leaders split on whether they should immediately attack the invaders or wait for reinforcements" .- WEBSITES ON THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 September 2009 8:15 UTC www.cumbavac.org [Source type: General]
^ Standing in the dark gateway before they enter the arena, the frightened slave in front of Maximus loses control from fear and relieves himself down his leg.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[118] .^ The threat of the cross offended their dignitas even more than fighting as gladiators.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As far as Lady Gladiators go, she was probably one of the more attractive ones.- Epic Carnival: Ranking the American Gladiators 15 September 2009 22:10 UTC www.epiccarnival.com [Source type: General]
[119] Most matches employed a senior referee (
summa rudis) and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs (
rudes) to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match. A gladiator's self-acknowledged defeat – signaled by a raised finger (
ad digitum) – told the referee to stop the combat and refer to the
editor, whose decision would usually rest on the crowd's mood. During the match, referees exercised judgement and discretion; they could pause bouts to allow combatants rest, refreshment and a "rub-down".
[120]The number of combats fought by gladiators was extremely variable. Most combats were fought in small buildings owned by public citizens. Very few fights were open to the public. Most fought at two or three munera annually but an unknown number died in their first match. Up to 150 combats are recorded for a very few individuals.
[121] A single bout probably lasted between 10–15 minutes, or 20 at most.
[122] .^ The new Emperor has ordered a series of matches to culminate in a grand spectacle.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ EXT. PROVINCIAL ARENA - DAY Proximo sits in a box with several other GLADIATOR TRAINERS. They drink wine and eat constantly.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The gladiators, together, proclaim to Caesar, "We who are about to die, salute you" .- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[123].^ Stories from Asimov's have won 44 Hugos and 24 Nebula Awards, and our editors have received 18 Hugo Awards for Best Editor.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The next fighter is Juba who picks up the wooden sword given to them for their testing and fiercely fights back as Hagen tests him.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Martial describes a match between
Priscus and
Verus, who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when both acknowledged defeat at the same instant,
Titus awarded victory and a
rudis to each.
[124] Flamma was awarded the
rudis four times, but chose to remain a gladiator. His gravestone in
Sicily includes his record: "Flamma,
secutor, lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a
Syrian by nationality. Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade-in-arms."
[125]
Outline of the games
Surviving contemporary accounts of games and matches were written by members of Rome's elite to illustrate a point or to celebrate the exceptional.
[126] They provide very little substance for accurate reconstruction or generalisation but an outline of games can be conjectured, using written histories, contemporary accounts, statuary, ephemera, memorabilia and stylised pictographic evidence. Almost all comes from the late republic and Empire, much of it from Pompeii.
[127][128]The earliest
munera took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their
munerator (who made the offering). Later games were held by an
editor, either identical with the
munerator or an official employed by him. As time passed these titles and meanings may have merged.
[129] From the Principate onwards, private citizens could personally fund gladiatorial
munera with Imperial permission and the assistance of a
lanista but an
editor increasingly tended to be a state official. For small-town games, from
Claudius onwards,
quaestors, the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, were obliged to fund two thirds of the costs from personal sources.
[130] .^ What could be more glorious than to challenge the emperor himself in the great arena.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[128][131]Augustan legislation – or custom – standardised the
munus as a
munus legitimum. This combined
venationes (animal fights or animal hunts) in the morning: the brief
Ludi meridiani at midday and
gladiatores in the afternoon.
[132][133] Games were advertised beforehand on conspicuously displayed billboards, giving the reason for the game, its editor, venue, date and the number of paired gladiators (
ordinarii) to be used. Highlighted features were included, such as
venationes, executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators; these might include a decorated awning against the sun, and water sprinklers. Food, drink, sweets and occasionally "door prizes" could be offered.
.^ If you don't mind a little gore, and you appreciate damn good acting & dialog, paired with an extremely interesting story, then see Gladiator -- you won't be sorry..- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Copies of the
libellus were distributed among the crowd on the day of the match.
[134] .^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They charged through us, killing right and left.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[135].^ Even before the walls were done, they brought up catapults.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Capua, too, and the gladiator shows are even bigger than they used to be.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He ordered the looting to stop, but the whole army ignored him, even most of the Samnites once they realized they were missing out on the best plunder.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[137][138]
.^ EXT. COLOSSEUM - ARENA - DAY The ending of a group fight -- Proximo's gladiators triumphant.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Sometimes beasts were unharmed and simply exhibited.
[139] The content of
ludi meridiani was variable, but usually involved executions of
noxii (sometimes as "mythological" re-enactments) or others condemned
(damnati) to the arena.
[140] Gladiators may have been involved in these though the crowd – and the gladiators themselves – preferred the "dignity" of an even contest.
[141] There were also comedy fights; some may have been lethal. A crude Pompeian graffito suggests a burlesque of musicians, dressed as animals named
Ursus tibicen (flute-playing bear) and
Pullus cornicen (horn-blowing chicken), perhaps as accompaniment to clowning by
paegniarii during a "mock" contest of the
ludi meridiani.
[142]
Pompeian tomb evidence shows the
munus as a civic and religious rite sponsored by a magistrate as
editor. A procession (
pompa) entered the arena led by
lictors bearing
fasces to signify the magistrate's power over life and death. They were followed by a small band of
tubicines playing a fanfare. Images of the gods were carried in to sanctify the
pompa, followed by a scribe (to record the outcome) and a man carrying the palm branch used to honour victors.
.^ Each chariot carries a female warrior in golden armour and golden helmet, armed with bows and wearing swords at their waists.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
The gladiators presumably came in last.
[143]"Warm-up" matches were probably fought before the main events, using blunted weapons – some
munera may have used blunted weapons throughout.
[144] The
editor (or his honoured representative) would check the weapons (
probatio armorum) for the "real" matches.
[145] These were the highlight of the day — as inventive, varied and novel as the
editor could afford. Armatures could be very costly – some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals. Increasingly the
munus was the
editor's gift to spectators who had come to expect the best as their due.
[146][147] .^ Once the first few rounds were over and we brought on the surviving pairs one at a time, the betting got serious.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Ten pairs at a time were matched up for the first round, then we paired the survivors.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Roman had to know that Spartacus could have killed him at any time, with any one of those cuts, if hed wanted it that way.- " The Gladiator's War: A Dialogue" by Lois Tilton 13 January 2010 17:38 UTC www.asimovs.com [Source type: Original source]
[137]The Zilten mosaic in Libya (ca 80–100 CE) shows musicians in context of a provincial
ludus (gladiators,
bestiarii, or
venatores and prisoners attacked by beasts). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (
tubicen), a large curved horn (
Cornu) and a
water organ (
hydraulis).
[148] Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and
bestiari) are found on a tomb relief in
Pompeii.
[149]Factions and rivals
Popular factions of the
munera (and
ludi) are described throughout the Imperial era.
[150] .^ Proximo follows behind, shielded under his large umbrella.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[151] As the games evolved, any lightly armed, defensive fighter could be included in this group. The heavily armoured and armed Thracian types (
Thraex) and Murmillo, who fought with smaller shields, were
parmularii (small shield), as were their supporters. Trajan preferred the
parmularii and Domitian the
secutarii; Marcus Aurelius took neither side. Nero seems to have enjoyed the brawls between rowdy, enthusiastic and sometimes violent factions, but called in the troops if they went too far.
[152][153]
.^ Beware of this Gaius, he'll pour a honeyed potion in your ear and you'll wake up one day and all you'll say is "Republic, Republic, Republic..."- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Beware of Gaius, he will pour honeyed potion in your ear and you will wake up one day and all you'll say is Republic!- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder.
[154]
There were also local rivalries. At a Pompeian
ludus, trading of insults between Pompeians and
Nucerians led to stone throwing and riot. Many were killed or wounded. Nero banned gladiator
munera (though not the games) at Pompeii for ten years as punishment. The story is told in graffiti and high quality wall painting, with much boasting of Pompeii's "victory" over Nuceria.
[155]Amphitheatres
.^ EXT. COLOSSEUM - ARENA - DAY The ending of a group fight -- Proximo's gladiators triumphant.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[156]
The
Colosseum in
Rome,
Italy. A photograph of the best known
Roman era amphitheatre taken in the early evening. Gladiatorial combats were the main event and usually held around this time of day.
Early
munera were probably private affairs, and offered limited visibility for non-privileged spectators. As these events became larger, open spaces such as the
Forum Romanum were adapted (as the Forum Boarium had been) as venues in Rome and elsewhere, with temporary, elevated seating for the patron and high status spectators. These were not truly public events:
A show of gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the market-place, and most of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting them for advantage.
Caius commanded them to take down their scaffolds, that the poor people might see the sport without paying anything.
.^ His body slaves work over him closely.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Maximus takes the sword from one opponent before killing him with his shield.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
So that by the next morning the market-place was cleared, and the common people had an opportunity of seeing the pastime.
.^ He was a man who thought Marcus should be tending to Rome and not conquering the world.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[157]
.^ I will empower you, to one end alone, to give power back to the people of Rome and end the corruption that has crippled it.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The conspiracy scenes are enclosed in a montage of scenes in and around the arena showing Maximus' growing popularity with the People of Rome...- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[158] Others had to pay.
Ticket scalpers (
Locarii) sometimes sold or let out seats at inflated prices.
Martial wrote that "Hermes [a gladiator who always drew the crowds] means riches for the ticket scalpers".
[159]
The amphitheatre was the one place in which the execution of justice was uniquely visible to all classes, and in which all classes were mutually visible. Its architecture elevated, separated and distanced them from the "pollution" of the arena where the judgment of the community was meted out. In the encircling stands, crowd and
editor could assess each others character and temperament, and freely express their mutual pleasure or displeasure – for most spectators, a unique opportunity (
theatralis licentia). Petitions could be submitted to the
editor (as magistrate) in full view of the community.
Factiones and claques could vent their spleen on each other, and occasionally on Emperors. The emperor Titus' dignified yet confident ease in his management of an amphitheatre crowd and its factions were a measure of his enormous popularity and the rightness of his imperium. The amphitheatre
munus thus served the Roman community as a court in miniature, in which judgement was also served on the judges.
[160][161][162]Yet permanent amphitheatres appeared long after the
munera had become an established part of Roman life. The blocking of earlier provision for permanent venues — and particularly of permanent seating — reflected genuine unease, not simply at political graft but at the erosion of public morals that must arise from frequent and excessively "luxurious"
munera.
[163] Pompeii's first amphitheatre was built by
Sullan colonists around 70 BCE.
[164] The first in the city of Rome was the extraordinary wooden Amphitheatre of
Gaius Scribonius Curio (built 53 BCE).
[165] The first part-stone amphitheatre in Rome was inaugurated in 29–30 BCE, in time for the triple triumph of Octavian (later Augustus).
[166] Shortly after it burned down in 64 CE,
Vespasian began its replacement, later known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium (
Colosseum), which seated 50,000 spectators and would remain the largest in the Empire.
.^ Emperor has deigned to this day favor the people of Rome with an historical final match.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ And in his majestic charity, the Emperor has deigned this day to favour the people of Rome with an historical final match.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[167]
Roman arena at
Arles, inside view
Amphitheatres also provided a potential model for social control. Seating was "disorderly and indiscriminate" until
Augustus prescribed its arrangement in his Social Reforms. To persuade the Senate, he expressed his distress on behalf of a Senator who could not find seating at a crowded games in
Puteoli:
In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed. He separated the soldiery from the people.
.^ Maximus recognizes the legionary as one of his own men, and gives him a fierce smile.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Maximus has no idea who the boy is -- just another young fan -- but Maximus is immediately struck by Lucius' resemblance to his own son.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
He would not allow women to view even the gladiators except from the upper seats, though it had been the custom for men and women to sit together at such shows. Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor's tribunal.
[168]
These arrangements do not seem to have been strongly enforced.
[152]Death, disposal, and remembrance
A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between a
murmillo (winning) and a
thraex.
The proximity of death defined the
munus for all concerned. To die well, a gladiator should never ask for mercy, nor cry out.
[169] A "good death" redeemed a defeated gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched:
[170]
For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men the courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable.
.^ We'll show these Roman dogs how gladiators fight!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
(Seneca,
Epistles, 30.8)
Some Mosaics show defeated gladiators kneeling in preparation for the moment of death. Seneca's "vital spot" seems to have meant the neck.
[171] Gladiator remains from Ephesus confirm this.
[172]In the fully developed public
munus, the death of a gladiator was followed by the ritualised removal of his body: the rites involved remain uncertain in origin, development and form. The Christian author
Tertullian, commenting on practice in Roman
Carthage, describes the removal of corpses by one who impersonates the "brother of Jove",
Dis Pater.
.^ Another soldier strikes him from the other side, but he still does not fall.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
The victims might be
noxii or gladiators; Kyle considers the latter unlikely as Tertullian's context here is the
ludi meridiani at which most
noxii – therefore also Christian martyrs of the arena – met their deaths in demeaning theatrical farces. While the identification of Mercury with
Hermes psychopompos seems to have been well established by the peak era of the
munera, and a Mercury (or Hermes)
arenarius figure seems to have been introduced around that time, this may have been a theatrical innovation of the
ludi meridiani rather than a tradition of the gladiator
munera.
Isidore's later identification of the Etruscan demon (and possible psychopomp)
Charun as an original for a presumed amphitheatre "
Charon" (certainly a psychopomp but not reliably attested in this context) may simply offer fanciful support to his speculated Etruscan origins for the games as a whole.
.^ Maximus walks through the camp, making his way to a gate where the crowds watch the gladiators on display.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This movie mad me think a lot about actual gladiators who faced the real life and death situation.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Overall, the movie is essentially a triumph of the imagination and a warning to those who believe that some things are just too big to be made into a film.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Only one gladiator refuses to make such a salute -- Maximus.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ [Maximus asks loudly, laughing as he speaks, doubting that Proximo could have known such a man.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
As no such practise is otherwise recorded, Tertullian may have mistaken or reinterpreted what he saw.
.^ Maximus and the other gladiators leave the arena to be returned to the underground cells.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Maximus and Juba, working as one, run at the opponent, using the chain that joins them to cut him at the throat, knocking him to the ground.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Meanwhile, the arena sand would be raked for the next bout, or fresh sand strewn.
[173].^ All this can belong to the select few who prove their worth in the arena.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It is more comfortable than their cell in Morocco, befitting Maximus' new status as one of the "stars."- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ I know that one grove of your vineyard is worth more to you than all the treasures of Rome.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[174] .^ Receiving no response, Marcus continues.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ [Receiving no response, Maximus slightly turns and leans toward the weak and old Marcus.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ WOW :) 10 /10 4.6.2006 - aida_nz@ - age: 18-25 .- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[citation needed]
Death and disposal perpetuated the divisions and judgements of society. In the pre-Christian era, the highest status funerals involved expensive, prolonged cremation ceremonies, sometimes complete with a
munus offering. At the opposite extreme, the
noxii (and possibly other
damnati) could be thrown into rivers or dumped unburied.
[175] This extended their
damnatio beyond death into perpetual oblivion and their shade (
manes) to restless wandering upon the earth as dreadful
larvae or lemures.
[176] All others – citizens, slaves or free – were usually buried beyond the town or city limits to avoid the ritual and physical pollution of their community. Gladiators were segregated in separate cemeteries. Even for those whose death had brought honourable release, the taint of
infamia was perpetual.
[177]Memorials were a major expense, and testify only to those who prospered. Gladiators could subscribe to a union (
collegia) which ensured proper burial, with compensation for wives and children. The gladiator's
familia or one of its members (including
lanistae, comrades, wives and children) sometimes paid.
[178]Tomb inscriptions from the Eastern Empire include these brief examples:
"The familia set this up in memory of Saturnilos."
"For Nikepharos, son of Synetos, Lakedaimonian, and for Narcissus the secutor. Titus Flavius Satyrus set up this monument in his memory from his own money."
"For Hermes. Paitraeites with his cell-mates set this up in memory".
[179]
The hand of
Nemesis absolved a gladiator from the ignominy of defeat, and his memorial maintained his
virtus in perpetuity as a skilled fighter, worth avenging:
"I, Victor, left-handed, lie here, but my homeland was in Thessalonica. Doom killed me, not the liar Pinnas. No longer let him boast. I had a fellow gladiator, Polyneikes, who killed Pinnas and avenged me. Claudius Thallus set up this memorial from what I left behind as a legacy."
[180]Gladiators in Roman life
Gladiators and the military
.^ You're a man who knows what it is to command.- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
^ COMMODUS: You are a man who knows what it is to command.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He was a man who thought Marcus should be tending to Rome and not conquering the world.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[181]
Rome was essentially a landowning military aristocracy. From the early days of the Republic, ten years of military service were a citizen's duty and a prerequisite for election to public office.
.^ LUCILLA: Is Rome worth one good man's life?- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This film is as much a geographical journey as a spiritual one for the central character of the story, Roman General Maximus, played by Russell Crowe.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Is Rome worth one good man's life?- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
It applied from highest to lowest alike in the chain of command.
[182] As a soldier committed his life (voluntarily, at least in theory) to the greater cause of Rome's victory, he was not expected to survive defeat.
[183][184]The Punic wars of the late 3rd century BCE – in particular the near-catastrophic defeat of Roman arms at Cannae – had long lasting effects on the Republic, its citizen armies, and the development of the gladiatorial
munera. In the aftermath of Cannae, Scipio Africanus crucified Roman deserters and had non-Roman deserters thrown to the beasts.
[185] The Senate refused to ransom Hannibal's Roman captives: instead, they made drastic preparations:
In obedience to the Books of Destiny, some strange and unusual sacrifices were made, human sacrifices amongst them. A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium... They were lowered into a stone vault, which had on a previous occasion also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings. When the gods were believed to be duly propitiated... Armour, weapons, and other things of the kind were ordered to be in readiness, and the ancient spoils gathered from the enemy were taken down from the temples and colonnades.
.^ Slaves now toss thick handfuls of powdered lime on the new slaves -- they cough and clench their eyes shut, the lime coats and stings their wet bodies.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The gladiators stop working out as they see the new slaves enter.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
These soldiers were preferred, as there would be an opportunity of ransoming them when taken prisoners at a lower price.
[186]
By the
devotio of a voluntary oath, a slave might achieve the quality of a Roman (
Romanitas), become the embodiment of true
virtus (manliness, or manly virtue), and paradoxically, be granted
missio while remaining a slave.
[162] The account notes – uncomfortably – the proximity of recent human sacrifice. While the Senate mustered their willing slaves, Hannibal offered his dishonoured Roman captives a chance for honourable death, in what Livy describes as something very like the Roman
munus. The
munus was thus an essentially military, self-sacrificial ideal, taken to extreme fulfillment in the gladiator's oath.
[104] .^ PROXIMO All the old gladiator schools have tunnels to the Colosseum -- most have long since collapsed -- JUBA How did they know?- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[187][188] In 107 BCE the
Marian Reform established the Roman army as a professional body. Two years later, following its defeat at Arausio:
...weapons training was given to soldiers by P. Rutilius, consul with C. Mallis.
.^ The following day, gladiators are training inside the gladiator school.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
[30]
The military were great aficionados of the games, and supervised the schools. Many schools and amphitheatres were sited at or near military barracks, and some provincial army units owned gladiator troupes.
[189] As the Republic wore on, the term of military service increased from ten to the sixteen years formalised by Augustus in the Principate. It would rise to twenty, and later, to twenty five years. Roman military discipline was ferocious; severe enough to provoke mutiny, despite the consequences. A career as a volunteer gladiator may have seemed an attractive option for some.
[190]In the
Year of the Four Emperors,
Otho's troops at
Bedriacum included 2000 gladiators. Opposite him on the field,
Vitellius's army was swollen by levies of slaves, plebs and gladiators.
[191] In 167 CE, troop depletions by plague and desertion may have prompted Marcus Aurelius to draft gladiators at his own expense.
.^ If you don't mind a little gore, and you appreciate damn good acting & dialog, paired with an extremely interesting story, then see Gladiator -- you won't be sorry..- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[192] During the Civil Wars that led to the Principate, Octavian (later Augustus) acquired the personal gladiator troop of his erstwhile opponent, Mark Antony. They had served their late master with exemplary loyalty but were quietly disposed of. They were, after all,
infames.
[61]Ethics, morals, and sentiment
Roman writing as a whole demonstrates a deep ambivalence towards the
gladiatoria munera, which even in their most complex and sophisticated forms evoked the ancient, ancestral
dii manes of the underworld and were framed by the protective, lawful rites of
sacrificium. Their co-option by the state was seen as inevitable;
Cicero acknowledged their sponsorship as a political imperative.
[193] .^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ [The Praetorian take a ready-stand, and the gladiators, without weapons, move forward ready to fight with Maximus.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Setting it down, he stands and moves to sit on a chair as he calls to, Cicero .- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ If you want to give away the best gladiators in the whole of the empire...- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
^ If you don't mind a little gore, and you appreciate damn good acting & dialog, paired with an extremely interesting story, then see Gladiator -- you won't be sorry..- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Gladiator, are you the one they call the Spaniard?- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
His own death would later emulate this example.
[194][195] Yet Cicero could also refer to his popularist opponent
Clodius, publicly and scathingly, as a
bustuarius – literally, a "funeral-man", implying that Clodius has shown the low temperament worthy of a gladiator: crude, disruptive and potentially lethal; "gladiator" could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period,
[196] Death might be rightly meted out as punishment, or met with equanimity in peace or war as a gift of fate, but death inflicted without moral purpose was ignoble, and might pollute and demean those who witnessed it.
[197] So for
Silius Italicus, who wrote as the games approached their peak, the degenerate
Campanians had devised the very worst of precedents, which now threatened the moral fabric of Rome: "It was their custom to enliven their banquets with bloodshed and to combine with their feasting the horrid sight of armed men fighting; often the combatants fell dead above the very cups of the revelers, and the tables were stained with streams of blood. Thus demoralised was Capua."
[198]While the
munus itself could be interpreted as pious necessity, the increasing
luxuria of
munera corroded Roman virtue by encouraging profligacy and the corruptions of self-indulgence: such foreign debaucheries whetted un-Roman appetites.
[199] .^ Since I became Caesar I have known 4 years without war - 4 years of peace in 20.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since I became caesar, I've known four years without war.- Gladiator Script - transcript from the screenplay and/or Russell Crowe movie 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.script-o-rama.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since I became Caesar I have only had four years without war.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Dio claimed to represent the voices of the Roman street; Caesar's
munus was a waste of lives – and of money, better doled out to needy army veterans.
[200] Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius – both professed
Stoics – the degradation of gladiators in the
munus highlighted their Stoic virtues – their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death.
.^ This movie mad me think a lot about actual gladiators who faced the real life and death situation.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Courage, dignity, altruism and loyalty were morally redemptive;
Lucian idealised this principle in his story of Sisinnes, who voluntarily fought as a gladiator, earned 10,000 drachmas and used it to buy freedom for his friend, Toxaris.
[201][202] Seneca had a lower opinion of the mob's un-Stoical appetite for
ludi meridiani: "Man [is]... now slaughtered for jest and sport; and those whom it used to be unholy to train for the purpose of inflicting and enduring wounds are thrust forth exposed and defenceless."
[162]These accounts seek a higher moral meaning from the
munus, but
Ovid's very detailed (though satirical) instructions for seduction in the amphitheatre suggest that the spectacles could generate a potent and dangerously sexual atmosphere.
[152] Augustan seating prescriptions placed women – excepting the Vestals, who were legally inviolate – as far as possible from the action of the arena floor; or tried to. There remained the thrilling possibility of clandestine sexual transgression by high-caste spectators and their heroes of the arena. Such assignations were a source for gossip and satire but some became unforgivably public:
[203]
What was the youthful charm that so fired Eppia? What hooked her?
.^ But while the people follow him, no one would dare stand up to him until you.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The head gladiator calls out instructions before they enter the arena, "When the Emperor enters, raise your weapons, salute him and then speak together.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Besides his face looked a proper mess, helmet-scarred, a great wart on his nose, an unpleasant discharge always trickling from one eye. But he was a gladiator. That word makes the whole breed seem handsome, and made her prefer him to her children and country, her sister, her husband. Steel is what they fall in love with.
[204]
Eppia – a senator's wife – and her Sergius eloped to Egypt, where he deserted her. Most gladiators would have aimed lower. Two wall
graffiti in Pompeii describe Celadus the Thraex as "the sigh of the girls" and "the glory of the girls" – which may or may not have been Celadus' own wishful thinking.
[205]In the later Imperial era, Servius Maurus Honoratus uses the same disparaging term as Cicero –
bustuarius – for gladiators.
[206] Tertullian used it somewhat differently – all victims of the arena were sacrificial in his eyes – and expressed the paradox of the
arenarii as a class, from a Christian viewpoint:
On the one and the same account they glorify them and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum, senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace.
[207]
Gladiators in Roman art and culture
In this new Play, I attempted to follow the old custom of mine, of making a fresh trial; I brought it on again.
.^ Gladiators have arrived in Rome for their first time.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The blacksmith begins slamming shackles on the gladiator's wrists -- chaining them together in teams of two by a chain about four feet long.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ His strategies are quick and smart, he makes the gladiators work together.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
[208]
Images of gladiators could be found throughout the Republic and Empire, among all classes. Walls in the 2nd century BCE "Italian
Agora" at
Delos were decorated with paintings of gladiators. Mosaics dating from the 2nd through 4th centuries CE have been invaluable in the reconstruction of combat and its rules, gladiator types and the development of the
munus. Throughout the Roman world, ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall paintings and statuary offer evidence – sometimes the best evidence – of the clothing, props, equipment, names, events, prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat. Earlier periods provide only occasional, perhaps exceptional examples.
[127][209] .^ We'll show these Roman dogs how gladiators fight!- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
^ EXT. PROVINCIAL ARENA - DAY Proximo sits in a box with several other GLADIATOR TRAINERS. They drink wine and eat constantly.- Gladiator Script at IMSDb. 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.imsdb.com [Source type: Original source]
Souvenir ceramics were produced depicting named gladiators in combat; similar images of higher quality, were available on more expensive articles in high quality ceramic, glass or silver.
Pliny the Elder gives vivid examples of the popularity of gladiator portraiture in
Antium and an artistic treat laid on by an adoptive aristocrat for the solidly plebian citizens of the Roman
Aventine:
.^ Proximo gives the gladiators a talk of encouragement (after all, they are there to make him money) before they go out for their first fight.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ If you don't mind a little gore, and you appreciate damn good acting & dialog, paired with an extremely interesting story, then see Gladiator -- you won't be sorry..- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[210]
Decline
Rampant inflation, border incursions and manpower shortages during the third century CE led to increasing military demands on the Imperial purse, from which the Empire never quite recovered. For lesser magistrates, the obligatory
munera became an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office but the decline of the
munus was not a straightforward process.
[211] Emperors continued to subsidize their performance as a matter of undiminished public interest.
[212] .^ Gladiator truly executes its themes of corruption, moral will power, greed and honour with powerful and dramatic scenes- A true epic!- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[213] In the next century, Augustine deplored the youthful fascination of his friend (and later fellow-convert and Bishop) Alypius, with the
munera spectacle as inimical to a Christian life and salvation.
[214] Amphitheatres continued to host the spectacular administration of Imperial justice: in 315 CE
Constantine I condemned child-snatchers
ad bestias in the arena. Ten years later, he banned the gladiator
munera:
In times in which peace and peace relating to domestic affairs prevail bloody demonstrations displease us.
.^ It is not our intention to republish or to duplicate any copyrighted movie or any dialogue of the movie Gladiator and in fact, there is no guarantee that our recollection and representation of any dialogue is accurate.- Gladiator - English 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC www.krescendo.com [Source type: Original source]
Those who were condemned to become gladiators for their crimes are to work from now on in the mines. Thus they pay for their crimes without having to pour their blood.
[215]
An Imperially sanctioned
munus at some time in the 330s CE suggests that yet again, Imperial legislation was ineffective, not least when Constantine defied his own law.
[216] In 365 CE
Valentinian I threatened to fine a judge who sentenced Christians to the arena and in 384, attempted to limit the expenses of
munera.
[217][218][219] In 393 CE
Theodosius adopted Christianity as the Roman state religion and banned pagan festivals.
[220] The
ludi continued, very gradually shorn of their stubbornly pagan
munera.
Honorius legally ended
munera in 399 CE, and again in 404 CE, at least in the Western half of the Empire – according to
Theodoret because of the martyrdom of
Saint Telemachus by spectators at a
munus.[221] Valentinian III repeated the ban in 438CE, perhaps effectively, though
venationes continued beyond 536 CE.
[222].^ It's moving and makes you really feel like you live in the Roman period, although many historical details may not be right.- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Many – if not most – involved
venationes, and in the later Empire some may have been only that. One primary source, the
Calendar of Furius Dionysius Philocalus for 354 CE, survives to suggest how the gladiator featured among a multitude of festivals in the Late Empire period. In that year, 176 days were reserved for spectacles of various kinds. Of these, 102 days were for theatrical shows, 64 for chariot races and just 10 in December for gladiator games and
venationes.
[223] Thomas Wiedemann interprets this in the much earlier context of the Historia Augusta, in which
Alexander Severus (reigned 222–235 CE) was said to intend the redistribution of
munera throughout the year. This would have broken with the traditional positioning of the major gladiator games at the year's end: as Wiedemann points out, December was the month for
Saturnalia, the festival in which the lowest became the highest, and in which death was linked to renewal.
Notes
- ^ Katherine E. Welch, The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 17.
- ^ Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (London: Routledge, 1998), 82. Surviving sources for early Roman history are attempts to reconstruct the past.
- ^ Welch, 16-17: Nicolaus cites Posidonius's support for a Celtic origin and Hermippus' for a Mantinean (therefore Greek) origin.
- ^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 4-7: citing Livy, 9.40.17.
- ^ Futrell, 14, 15.
- ^ Welch, 11.
- ^ Welch, 18.
- ^ Futrell, 3-5.
- ^ Futrell, 4.
- ^ David Stone Potter and D.J. Mattingly, eds., Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 226.
- ^ Potter and Mattingly, 226; Paestum was colonized by Rome in 273 BCE.
- ^ Welch 15, 18.
- ^ See munus entry at wiktionary [1].
- ^ Welch, 18-19; Livy's account (summary 16) places beast-hunts and gladiatorial munera within this single munus.
- ^ Welch, 19: citing Ausanius: Seneca simply says they were "war captives".
- ^ Thomas Wiedemann, Emperors and Gladiators (London: Routledge, 1992), 33.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 2.
- ^ Donald G. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007) 273; Evidence of "Samnite" as an insult in earlier writings fades as Samnium is absorbed into the Republic.
- ^ Quoted in Futrell, 4-5.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 67 84n; Livy's published works are often embellished with illustrative rhetorical detail.
- ^ The velutes and later, the provocatores were exceptions, but as "historicised" rather than contemporary Roman types. See Gladiator types.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 80-81.
- ^ Welch, 21: citing Livy, 23.30.15. The Aemilii Lepidii were one of the most important families in Rome at the time, and probably owned a gladiator school (ludus).
- ^ a b Futrell, 8-9.
- ^ Futrell, 30.
- ^ Livy 39.46.2
- ^ Silius Italicus quoted in Futrell, 4-5.
- ^ Welch, 21.
- ^ Livy, Annal for the Year 174 BC, as cited in Welch, 21.
- ^ a b Weidemann,6-7: citing Valerius Maximus 2.3.2.
- ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), 183.
- ^ The "games" and "schools" were both ludi (s.ludus).
- ^ Henrik Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 97.
- ^ K.M. Coleman, "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments," The Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), 50.
- ^ Mouritsen, 109-111, 32: approximately 12% of Rome's adult male population could actually vote.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 287.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 285.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 287; Caesar brought his Capua-based gladiators to Rome.
- ^ Futrell, 24; Gladiator gangs were used by Caesar and others to overawe and "persuade".
- ^ Mouritsen, 61; Gladiators could be enrolled into noble households; some household slaves may have been raised and trained for this.
- ^ Mouritsen, 97; for more detail see Plutarch's Julius Caesar 5.4.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 285-287; see also Pliny's Historia Naturalis 33.16.53.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 280, 287.
- ^ Wiedemann, 8-10.
- ^ Welch, 21: Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Greece was keen to upstage his Roman allies, but to save costs, all his gladiators were local volunteers.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 280: citing Cicero, Lex Tullia Ambitu.
- ^ Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics," Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, Amy Richlin, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 184.
- ^ Wiedemann, 45: citing Cassius Dio 54.2.3-4).
- ^ Prices in denarii cited in "Venationes," Encyclopaedia Romana
- ^ US $ equivalents are very approximate, linked to US$ value in 2000CE. Roman prices of wheat, wine and meat imply the as (211 BCE-301 CE) and nummus (301 CE - 475 CE) as equivalent to the US dollar in purchasing power, and by conversion, the denarius at around $10 in 200 BCE, $20 at the height of the munera, and $25 in 300 CE.[2]
- ^ Roland Auguet, Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games, 1994, 30: Augustus' games each involved an average 625 gladiator pairs.
- ^ Brown, "Death as Decoration," 181: citing Dio Cassius 68.15.
- ^ Futrell,48.
- ^ Josephus: The Jewish War, 6.418, 7.37-40.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of death in Ancient Rome, 93: noxii were the most obnoxious of criminal categories in Roman law. See "legal and social status" in this article.
- ^ Futrell, 120-125.
- ^ Ludus meant both a game and a school — see entries 1 to 2.C, at Lewis and Short (perseus) [3].
- ^ Futrell, 124: see also Cassius Dio's accusation of entrapment by informers to provide "arena slaves" under Claudius. 103: "the best gladiators", citing Petronius, Satyricon, 45.
- ^ "Suetonius, ''Lives,'' Tiberius, 7: Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham". Fordham.edu. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suet-tiberius-rolfe.html. Retrieved 2010-02-07.
- ^ Suetonius, Lives, Nero, 30: given as an example of Nero's profligacy. Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham. [4]
- ^ a b Futrell, 129: citing Dio.
- ^ Futrell, 153-6.
- ^ Brown, 185; offences included arson and theft but above all, treason, such as rebellion, census evasion to avoid paying taxes, and refusal to swear lawful oaths.
- ^ Andrew Borkowski and Paul du Plessis, Textbook on Roman Law (Oxford: Blackstone Press, 1998), Preface, 81.
- ^ Coleman, 46.
- ^ Weidemann, 40-6.
- ^ Coleman, 71.
- ^ Brown, 185; Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 4.13.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 94: survival and "promotion" would have been extremely rare for damnati – and unheard of for noxii – notwithstanding Aulus Gellius' tale of Androcles.
- ^ Borkowski and Plessis, 80.
- ^ Borkowski and Plessis; manumission was seldom absolute. Terms of release were negotiated between master and slave; Digests 28.3.6.5-6 & 48.19.8.11-12.
- ^ Futrell, 123: citing Ulpian, 8th book of Proconsular Functions, CMRL 11.7.
- ^ Futrell, 157.
- ^ Bill Thayer, Trans. Smith: Roman Law – Infamia."
- ^ Futrell, 131: citing Tertullian, De Speculates, 22
- ^ Futrell, 86-7: citing Plutarch, Moral Essays, 1099B.
- ^ Carter, 52-6.
- ^ Brown, 186.
- ^ D.38.1.38 pr in Borkowski and Plessis, 95.
- ^ Barton, 25: citing Dio, 43.23.4-5. Suetonius, Caesar, 39.1 adds the two Senators.
- ^ Futrell, 153, 156. Under Caligula, participation by men and women of senatorial rank may have been encouraged, and sometimes enforced; Cassius Dio, 59.10, 13-14 & Tacitus Caligula, 15.32.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 115-6 (note 102)
- ^ Barton, 25: citing Dio, 56.25.7.
- ^ David Potter, trans., "The Senatus Consultum from Larinium."
- ^ Futrell, 153: citing Cassius Dio, 62.17.3.
- ^ For Caligula's extraordinary behaviour as editor, see Cassius Dio, 59.10, 13-14 & Tacitus Caligula, 15.32.
- ^ Valentinian/Theodosius 15.9.1: Symacchus, Relatio, 8.3.
- ^ Barton, 26: citing Juvenal 8.199ff.
- ^ Barton, 66.
- ^ Robin Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 576: citing Pliny.
- ^ Futrell, 158.
- ^ Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I (New York: Penguin, 1995), 118.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Commodus, 73 (epitome) at Thayer: [5]. He was posthumously declared a public enemy but later deified.
- ^ Futrell, 147: citing the Historia Augusta, Marcus Antoninus, in which Faustina's sexual preference for "rough types" is described as "reasonably well known". The HA's reliability on this point is unknown.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 238.
- ^ Futrell, 85, 149.
- ^ Auget, 31.
- ^ Futrell, 137-8: citing Digest 3.1.1.6: Ulpian, Edict, Book 6.
- ^ Cicero, Letters, 10.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 285-7, 312: this had probably began under Augustus.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 1998, 80.
- ^ Futrell, 103: citing Petronius Satyricon, 45. 133.
- ^ Futrell, 133. See also Tiberius' inducement to re-enlist.
- ^ a b Petronius, Satyricon, 117: "He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword."
- ^ Futrell, 138.
- ^ palus: named after the training poles, 6 Roman feet high, erected in the training arena.
- ^ Futrell, 137, citing Quintilian, Oratorical Institute, 5.13.54: 140, citing Cicero, Tuscullan Disputations 2.17: 139, citing Epictetus, Discourse 3.15.
- ^ Jones, C.P. "Stigma": tattooing and branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, Journal of Roman Studies, 1987, 77, 139-55: facial stigma represented extreme social degredation.
- ^ Futrell, 142: citing Juvenal, Satire 6 [Oxford Fragment 7.13].
- ^ Welch, 17: the burning alive of a soldier who refused to become an auctoratus at a Spanish school in 43BCE is exceptional only because he was a citizen, technically exempt from such compulsion and penalty.
- ^ Futrell, 148-9.
- ^ Andrew Curry, Archaeology (abstract),6, 6, Nov-Dec 2008, (accessed 21 March 2009)[6] Gladiators were sometimes called hordearii ("eaters of barley)". Romans considered barley inferior to wheat — a punishment for legionaries replaced their wheat ration with it — but it was thought to strengthen the body and lay on subcutaneous fat.
- ^ John Follain, Times Online, 15th Dec 2002, (accessed 24 March 2009).The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?
- ^ Futrell, 141-2.
- ^ Michael Carter, "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 42, (2004).
- ^ Futrell, 141.
- ^ Futrell, 144-5: citing Suetonius, Lives; Augustus 45, Caligula, 30, Claudius, 34.
- ^ Futrell, 101.
- ^ Futrell, 102: based on stylised mosaic evidence from Symmachius: this editor is praised by spectators for "doing the right thing".
- ^ Futrell, 101: based on mosaics and a Pompeian tomb relief.
- ^ Futrell, 145.
- ^ Potter and Matingly, 313: a lightly armed and armoured fighter would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponent.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and spectacle in the Ancient World, 313-4.
- ^ Martial, Liber de Spectaculis, 29
- ^ Kyle, Sport and spectacle in the Ancient World, 112: citing Robert.
- ^ Susan Mattern, Rome and the Enemy: imperial strategy in the Principate, 1999, 2.
- ^ a b Brown, 181.
- ^ a b Futrell, 43.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 1998 80
- ^ In effect, a part-purchase of office.
- ^ Weidemann, 440-6.
- ^ Welch, 23.
- ^ Futrell, 84.
- ^ Futrell, 85, 101, 110: based on fragmentary Pompeian remains and citing Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 19.23-25.
- ^ Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre (fighting styles) BBC
- ^ “Even among the gladiators, I see those who... find greater pleasure in freeing their slaves, and commending their wives to their friends, than in satisfying their appetites.” Plutarch, Moral Essays 1099B: fully cited in Futrell, 86-7:
- ^ a b Potter and Mattingly, 313.
- ^ Futrell, 86: gladiatorial banquet on mosaic, El Djem.
- ^ Futrell, 88.
- ^ Futrell, 91.
- ^ Futrell, 94-5, citing Seneca: On Providence, 3.4.
- ^ Stephen Wisdom and Angus McBride, Gladiators: 100 BC-AD 200, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001. 18: author's drawing).
- ^ Futrell, 85.
- ^ Carter, 43, 46-9. In the Eastern provinces of the later Imperium, the state archiereis combined the roles of editor, Imperial cult priest and lanista, giving gladiatoria munera in which the use of sharp weapons seems an exceptional honour.
- ^ Marcus Aurelius encouraged the use of blunted weapons: in Cassius Dio, Roman History, Bill Thayer, (Loeb), 71.29.4.
- ^ Futrell, 99-100.
- ^ Weidemann, 14.
- ^ Wiedemann, 15-16.
- ^ Wiedemann, 15; citing Kraus and von Matt, Pompei and Herculaneum, New York, 1975, Fig. 53.
- ^ Examples include Martial, Epigrams 14, 213; Suetonius, Caligula.
- ^ Also scutarii or secutoriani.
- ^ a b c Futrell, 105.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 111.
- ^ Suetonius, Lives, Caligula, 30.3.
- ^ Futrell, 107-8: see also Tacitus, Annals, 14.17
- ^ The English arena derives from Latin harena (sand, sand-strewn place of combat).
- ^ Plutarch, Caius Gracchus, 12.3-4 (Translation from The Internet Classics Archive).
- ^ Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001) 82
- ^ Futrell, 136: citing Martial, Epigrams, 5.24)
- ^ Brown, 184-185: Even emperors who disliked munera were thus obliged to attend them.
- ^ Futrell, 37-42, 105.
- ^ a b c Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 3.
- ^ Appian, BC 128: Livy Per. 48.
- ^ Welch, 197: citing CIL X.852.
- ^ (Potter and Mattingly, 226; citing Pliny the Elder 36.117.
- ^ Potter and Mattingly, 226; see also Pliny, Natural History, 36. 113-5. It was commissioned by T. Statilius Taurus. According to Pliny, its three storeys were marble-clad, housed 3,000 bronze statues and seated 80,000 spectators. It was probably wooden-framed in part.
- ^ Mattern, 151-2.
- ^ Suetonius, Lives, Augustus 44)
- ^ Futrell, 140: citing Cicero, Tuscullan Disputations, 2.17.
- ^ Weidemann, 38-9.
- ^ Edwards, 66-7.
- ^ Archaeology (abstract): Andrew Curry. (accessed 21 March 2009)[7]: marks on the bones of several suggest a sword thrust into the base of the throat and down towards the heart: :
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 155-168: Dis Pater and Jupiter Latiaris rituals in Tertullian, Ad Nationes, 1.10.47.
- ^ Futrell, 144: citing Ville
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 14, and note 74 contextualises Juvenal's panem et circenses – bread and games as a sop to the politically apathetic plebs (Satires, 4.10) – within an account of the death and damnatio of Sejanus, whose body was torn to pieces by the crowd and left unburied.
- ^ Suetonius has the populace wish Tiberius' body to be thrown in the Tiber, or left unburied, or "dragged with the hook", as a form of posthumous damnatio. Suetonius, Lives, Tiberius, 75.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 128-159.
- ^ Futrell, 149-53, 133: The single name form on a gladiator memorial probably indicates a slave, two a freedman or discharged auctoratus and the very rare "tria nomina" a freedman or a full Roman citizen. See also vroma.org [8]
- ^ Futrell, 149: citing Robert, #'s 24, 12, & 109.
- ^ Futrell, 149: citing Robert #34.
- ^ Livy, 45, 32-3
- ^ It was notably fulfilled and celebrated in the battlefield devotio of two consular Decii: Publius Decius Mus (340 BC) & Publius Decius Mus (312 BC). See Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 81.
- ^ Catherine Edwards, Death in Ancient Rome (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007), 19-45
- ^ Livy, 22.51.5-8, has wounded Romans at Cannae stretch out their necks for the death blow by comrades: cf Cicero's death in Seneca, Suasoriae, 6.17.
- ^ Welch, 17.
- ^ Livy 22.55-57.
- ^ Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), 15
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 274.
- ^ Weidemann, 45.
- ^ Mattern, 126-8: citing Tacitus, Annals 1.17.
- ^ Mattern, 87: citing Cassius Dio, 72, 73.2.3.
- ^ Mattern, 87.
- ^ Futrell, 16: citing Cicero, Letters to friends: 2.3.
- ^ Cicero's admiration: Tusculan Disputations, 2.41.
- ^ Barton, 39: citing Seneca, Suasoriae, 6.17. for Cicero's death.
- ^ Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 273: for bustuarius, with reference to Clodius' alleged impious disturbance at the funeral of Marius, see Cicero's In Pisonem (Against Piso). See also Cicero's unflattering references to Marcus Antonius as gladiator in his 2nd Phillipic.
- ^ Brown, 185: Tacitus, Annals, 15.44 describes the adverse public reactions to Nero's punishment of Christians through personal appetite for cruelty, rather than for the public good.
- ^ Silius Italicus, 11.51: cited in Welch, 3.
- ^ Futrell, 4: Roman commentators associated munera with Capua's proverbial luxury and excess.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 43.24.
- ^ Futrell, 154: citing Lucian, Toxaris: 58-59.
- ^ Barton, 16.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of death in Ancient Rome, 85: this should be considered scandalous and noteworthy, rather than common.
- ^ Juvenal, Satires, P. Green, trans., 6.102 ff.
- ^ Futrell, 146: citing Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.4.4342.& CIL.4.4345.
- ^ Servius (fl late 4th cent) Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil: 10.519.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 80. Bustuarius is found in Tertullian, De Spectaculis, 11: the quotation is from Tertullian, De Spectaculis 22.
- ^ Terence, Hecyra, Prologue II.
- ^ Welch, 2.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History, 30.32; as cited in Welch, 21
- ^ Mattern, 130-1.
- ^ Auget, 30, 32.
- ^ Tertullian, de Spectaculis, 22.
- ^ St Augustine, Confessions, 6.8.
- ^ Edwards, 215: see also Constantine, 9.18.1 & 15.12.1.
- ^ Carter, 43.
- ^ See Tertullian, Apologetics, 49.4, for Tertullian's condemnation of officials who sought their own "glory" by sponsoring the martyrdom of Christians.
- ^ Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 78; compared to "pagan" noxii, Christian deaths in the arena would have been few.
- ^ Codex Theodosianus 9.40.8 & 15.9.1: Symacchus, Relatio, 8.3: Latin text at ancientrome.ru: [9].
- ^ C.Th. 2.8.19.& 2.8.22.
- ^ Telemachus had personally stepped in to prevent the munus. See Theoderet, Hist. Eccles. 5.26.
- ^ Codex Justinianus, 3.12.9.
- ^ Wiedemann, 11-12
References and further reading
- Auguet, Roland. Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games. Paris, 1970. English reprint, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0415104521.
- Barton, Carlin A. The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 069105696x
- Borkowski, Andrew and Paul du Plessis. Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Blackstone Press, 1994. ISBN 1854313134
- Brown, Shelby. "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics." Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, 180-211. Amy Richlin, ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 1992.
- Carter, Michael. "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 44 (2004), 41-68. (PDF)
- Coleman, K.M. "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments." The Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), 44-73.
- Edwards, Catherine. Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007. ISBN 0300112084
- Everitt, Anthony. Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician. New York: Random House, 2001. ISBN 0375507469
- Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New York: Basic Books, 2006.
- Futrell, Alison. A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. ISBN 1405115688
- Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Volume I. New York: Penguin, 1995.
- Grant, M., Gladiators, Penguin Books, London 1967, reprinted 2000, ISBN 0140299343
- Grossschmidt, K. and F. Kanz. "Head Injuries of Roman Gladiators." Forensic Science International 160.2–3, 207–216.
- Jones, C.P. "Stigma": tattooing and branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, Journal of Roman Studies, 77 (1987) 139-55.
- Köhne, E., and Ewigleben, C., (eds); Gladiators and Caesars; British Museum Press, London, 2000. ISBN 0520227980
- Kyle, Donald G. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415096782
- Kyle, Donald G. Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 0631229701
- Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999 (reprinted 2004). ISBN 0199261083.
- Mattern, Susan P. Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0520236831
- Millar, F., The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1998. ISBN 0472108921
- Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. .
- Potter, David Stone and D.J. Mattingly, eds.^ Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone [2001] .
- Gladiator [2000] Movie Reviews on MovieClock 18 September 2009 6:36 UTC movieclock.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1999. Hardcover. ISBN 0472109243
- Welch, Katherine E. The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0521809444
- Wiedemann, Thomas. Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge, 1992. ISBN 0415121647.
- Wisdom, Stephen and Angus McBride. Gladiators: 100 BC-AD 200 Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1841762997
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