Grand Coulee Dam is a hydroelectric gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington. It is the largest electric power-producing facility^[4] and the largest concrete structure in the United States.^[5] It is the fifth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world, as of the year 2008.

The dam was the result of a bitter debate during much of the 1920s between two parties, one of which wanted to irrigate the ancient Grand Coulee Plateau with a gravity canal and the other side who supported a high dam and pumping scheme. In 1933, the dam was selected but for fiscal reasons, its initial design called for it to be 400 ft (120 m) shorter than it is presently and without a pumping capacity for irrigation. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and a consortium of three companies called MWAK began construction that same year. After visiting the construction site in August 1934, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt changed his mind and from there on supported the high dam. The high dam was approved by Congress in 1935 and completed in 1942, the first water over-topping its spillway on June 1 of that year.

The dam's power plants fueled an industrious and growing Northwest during World War II. Between 1967 and 1974, the Third Powerplant was constructed in conjunction with the dam. The decision to construct the additional power plant was influenced by growing energy demand, regulated river flows stipulated in the Columbia River Treaty with Canada and competition with the Soviet Union. Through a series of upgrades and the installation of pump-generators, the dam now supplies four power stations with an installed capacity of 6,809 MW. In conjunction with the Columbia Basin Project, the dam's reservoir also supplies water for the irrigation of 671,000 acres.

The reservoir is called Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lake, named after the United States President who presided over the authorization and completion of the dam. The dam has also prevented the migration of fish and its reservoir caused the relocation of over 3,000 people, including Native Americans while also inundating part of their ancestral lands.

Background

The Grand Coulee is an ancient river bed created during the Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Age) from retreating glaciers and floods. When ice dams had clogged the main Columbia River channel and raised its level, the Grand Coulee became its conduit by transferring water south through its plateau and past the normal river bend.^[6][7] Mimicking a similar scheme to irrigate the Grand Coulee plateau would be the intent of engineers and inspiration for the Grand Coulee Dam. In 1892, the Coulee City News and The Spokesman Review published the earliest known proposal to irrigate the Coulee plateau with the Columbia River. It regarded a plan developed by Laughlin McLean to construct a 1000 ft. dam across the Columbia River that would divert the water back into the plateau.^[8] Shortly after the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation was formed, known then as the Reclamation Service, they had expressed interest in pumping water from the Columbia River to central areas of Washington.^[9] An attempt to raise funds for irrigation failed in 1914 with an unsuccessful bond measure.^[8] Pumping would be required because in order for the dam to flood the Grand Coulee Plateau, it would have to be 600 ft. tall but its reservoir would then encroach into Canada, violating treaties.^[10]

An attorney from Ephrata named William M. Clapp began proposing in 1917 that the Columbia be dammed right below the Grand Coulee plateau.^[9] He suggest that a concrete dam could help flood the plateau just as nature had blocked it with ice centuries ago. Clapp was joined with another attorney, James O' Sullivan, and Rufus Woods, the publisher of the Wenatchee World newspaper. Woods began promoting the Grand Coulee Dam with his newspaper, particularly with articles written by O'Sullivan. The idea had gained popularity with the public in 1918. The previous two schools of thought had existed prior and continued to conflict as the idea for the dam progressed. One side known as the "pumpers", favored pumping water from the river and the other side known as the "ditchers" favored diverting water from northeast Washington's Pend Oreille River via a gravity canal. Locals along with Woods, O'Sullivan and Clapp were pumpers while businessmen in Spokane associated with the Washington Water and Power Company (WWPC) were staunch ditchers. The pumpers believed that hydroelectricity from the dam could be used to cover costs and its maintenance along with the view that the ditchers wanted to control the eastern part of the state. Washington's own governor at the time, Ernest Lister was in favor of the canal but this changed after his death in 1919, when his successor, Louis F. Hart supported the pumping scheme.^[8] [[File:|thumb|175px|left|Future dam site, looking south]] Throughout the 1920's, both sides were engaged in a battle to win support for their proposal. Studies both supporting the dam or canal were published while supporters held rallies for their specific cause. The debate was expanded to the lobbying of Congressmen and other government officials.^[8] Lister had previously established the Columbia Basin Survey Commission on March 1, 1919. The Commission was composed largely of WWPC engineers and their subsequent report which deemed the dam as "infeasible" was questioned.^[10] One influential person, hired by Spokane businesses, General George W. Goethals, the engineer of the Panama Canal, produced a report that agreed with the commission. However, the Bureau of Reclamation ordered $500,000 in drilling tests to confirm the initial report's claim of "flimsy foundation of soft rock" and that "no rock has been encountered." Granite, which was very much suitable for a high dam, was discovered at depths from 67 - 172 feet despite Spokane newspapers initially falsifying the results.^[11][7] In the early 1920s, the WWPC tried to eliminate the need for a pumping and the dam by nearly constructing their own dam on the upstream Kettle Falls which would had limited the height of the Grand Coulee Dam and rendering pumping infeasible.^[8] They were unsuccessful acquiring federal funding with the absence of federal studies on their project.^[7]

In 1929, President Herbert Hoover was persuaded by Washington's Senators, Wesley Jones and Clarence Dill, to fund a $600,000 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers study of the Columbia River. This study was included in the River and Harbors Act which provided for studies on the navigation, power, flood control and irrigation potential of rivers. The studies were carried out by the U.S. Corps of Engineers and Federal Power Commission between 1927 and 1929 on the Columbia and Snake Rivers.^[7] After a few years of the Corps of Engineers and Reclamation competing, the Army Corps completed the study in 1932.^[11] It recommended the Grand Coulee Dam and nine others on the river, including some in Canada.^[8] The Bureau of Reclamation also completed a similar report in 1932 that also supported a dam.^[9] Overall, the Grand Coulee Dam was being supported but others such as Hoover argued that there was little need for more electricity in the northwest and crops were in surplus.^[8][7] The Army Corps did not believe it should be a federal project and saw low demand for electricity but the Bureau of Reclamation argued that energy demand would rise by the time the dam was complete.^[12] The head of Reclamation, Elwood Mead stated he wanted the dam built no matter what the cost.^[7] President Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed office in 1932 as well and supported the dam because of the irrigation and power it would provide but was uneasy with its $450 million price tag. So he supported a 150 ft. dam instead of the 550 ft. Reclamation-designed dam that was planned. He provided $63 million in federal funding, while Washington State previously provided $377,000.^[9][8] In 1933, the same year Roosevelt established the Public Works Administration, Clarence Martin set up the Columbia Basin Commission to oversee construction of the dam, funds were also released in July that year.^[7][13]

Construction

Low dam

On July 16, 1933, the ceremonial first stake was driven at the construction site as a crowd of 3,000 watched. Excavation of the site soon began and core drilling commenced that September while the Bureau of Reclamation accelerated their studies and designs for the dam.^[14][7] The dam being constructed was the low dam. It would still, although at a reduced capacity, help control floods, provide for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Most importantly, it would not raise its reservoir high enough to irrigate the Grand Coulee plateau.^[9] However, the dam's design gave it the ability to be raised and upgraded in the future.^[9] [[File:|thumb|175px|right|The east-side coffer dam after the west base was complete.]] Before and during construction, workers and engineers experienced difficulty. Contracts for companies to construct the various parts dam were hard to award because of how large they were compared to companies available, forcing companies to consolidate. In addition, Native American graves had to be relocated and temporary fish ladders had to be constructed. During construction, landslides along with protecting and cooling concrete were formidable problems.^[11] Construction on the downstream Grand Coulee Bridge began in May 1934 and more considerable earth-moving began in August.^[7] Excavtion for the dam's foundation required the removal of 22,000,000 cu yd (17,000,000 m³) of dirt and stone.^[15] To further secure the foundation, workers drilled 660 ft (200 m) to 880 ft (270 m) holes into the granite and filled any fissures with grout, creating a grout curtain.^[16] At times, excavated areas would collapse from overburden. In order to secure these areas from further movement and continue excavation, three-inch diameter pipes were inserted into the mass and fueled with cold liquid from a refrigeration plant. This froze the earth and secured it so construction could continue.^[17]

Contract bidding for the actual dam began on June 18, 1934 in Spokane. The lowest bid was from a consortium of three companies, Silas Mason Co. from Louisville, Kentucky and New York, Walsh Construction Co. of Davenport, Iowa and Atkinson-Kier Company of San Francisco and San Diego. The consortium was known as MWAK and their bid was $29,339,301.10, almost 15% lower than the next bidder, Six Companies, Inc. who was building Hoover Dam at the time.^[18] Between January 1 and March 23, 1935 about 1,200 workers constructed the cofferdam on the river's west side. The cofferdam allowed workers to dry the riverbed and begin constructing the dam.^[7] Two cofferdams were constructed for the dam but neither straddled the entire width of the river. First, the west cofferdam was built, allowing the foundation for the west-side of the dam to be built. Once complete, the east side cofferdam was built, allowing the east side of the dam to be constructed.^[19] The west cofferdam was 2,000 ft (610 m) long, 50 ft (15 m) thick and was constructed 110 ft (34 m) above the bedrock.^[20]

Design change

On August 4, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited the construction site and was impressed by the project and its purpose.^[21] He closed his speech by saying "I leave here today with the feeling that this work is well undertaken; that we are going ahead with a useful project, and we are going to see it through for the benefit of our country."^[22] Soon after, Reclamation was allowed to proceed with the high dam but now had to transition the design and negotiate an altered contract with MWAK. In June of 1935, at an additional $7 million, MWAK agreed to construct the high dam with the obvious improvements, one of which included excavation for the pumping plant.^[21]

Roosevelt envisioned how the dam would fit into further into his New Deal under the Public Works Administration; it would create jobs, farming opportunities and it would pay for itself. In addition, as part of a larger heated debate at the time, Roosevelt wanted to keep electricity prices low by limiting private ownership of utility companies, which could charge high prices for energy.^[12] Many opposed a federal takeover of the project, including its most prominent supporters, but they knew it was inevitable. Factors included Washington State not being able to afford or being authorized to acquire the needed land to construct the project and political public energy ownership interests.^[7][8] In August 1935, with the help of Roosevelt and a Supreme Court decision allowing the acquisition of public land and Indian Reservations, Congress authorized funding for the upgraded high dam under the 1935 River and Harbors Act.^[23] The most significant legislative hurdle for the dam was over.^[24]

That for the purpose of controlling floods, improving navigation, regulating the flow of the streams of the United States, providing for storage and for the delivery of the stored waters thereof, for the reclamation of public lands and Indian reservations, and other beneficial uses, and for the generation of electric energy as a means of financially aiding and assisting such undertakings the projects known as "Parker Dam" on the Colorado River and "Grand Coulee Dam" on the Columbia River are hereby authorized and adopted.-1935 Rivers and Harbors Act SEC 2, August 30, 1935, [H.R. 6250] [Public, No. 409]^[24]

First concrete pour and completion

On December 6, 1935, the first concrete was poured for the dam.^[7] Bulk concrete was delivered on site by rail-cars where it was further processed by eight large mixers before being placed in form. Concrete was poured into 50 sq ft (4.6 m²) columns by crane-lifted buckets, each supporting eight tons of concrete.^[25] To cool the concrete and facilitate contraction, about 2,000 mi (3,200 km) of piping was placed throughout the drying mass. Cold water from the river was then pumped into the pipes, reducing core temperatures that exceeded 105F down to 45F. This caused the dam to contract about eight inches in length of which gaps where filled with grout.^[19] On January 24, 1936, the Grand Coulee Bridge was complete.^[7] Three additional and temporary bridges downstream moved sand and gravel across the river for cement mixing along with vehicles and workers.^[26] In March 1938, MWAK had completed the lower dam and Consolidated Builders Inc. began constructing the high dam. Consolidated consisted of MWAK and seven other construction companies, they were awarded the high dam contract in 1937. on the west power house was completed in December 1939 and about 5,500 workers were on site that year. Between 1940 and 1941, the dam's eleven floodgates were installed on the spillway and the dams first generator went into operation in January 1941.^[7] The reservoir was full and the first water flowed over the dam's spillway on June 1, 1942 while work was officially complete on January 31, 1943.^[27][28]

Reservoir clearing

[[File:|thumb|175px|right|Banks and Smith felling the last tree in the reservoir zone.]] In 1933, the Bureau of Reclamation had begun efforts to purchase land behind the dam, as far as 151 mi (243 km) upstream, for the future reservoir zone. The reservoir, known later as Lake Roosevelt, would flood 70,500 acres and Reclamation acquired an additional 11,500 acres around the future shoreline. Within the zone was eleven towns, two railroads, three state highways, about one hundred and fifty miles of country roads, four sawmills, fourteen bridges, four telegraph and telephone systems along with power lines and cemeteries. All facilities had to be purchased or relocated and a total of 3,000 residents were relocated.^[29] The government appraised the land and offered to purchase it from the effected residents. Many refused to accept the offers and Reclamation filed condemnation suits.^[30] The relocation of Colville Confederated and Spokane Tribe of Indians members with year-round and seasonal settlements within the reservoir zone occurred as well. The Acquisition of Indian Lands for Grand Coulee Dam Act of June 29, 1940 allowed the Secretary of the Interior to acquire land on the Colville and Spokane Reservations, eventually accounting for 21,100 acres.^[31] Eventually, by 1942, all land had been purchased at market value at a cost $10.5 million which included the relocation of farms, bridges, highways and railroads. Relocation costs were not offered to property owners though, which was common until laws were changed in 1958.^[30]

In late 1928, the Public Works Administration began clearing the reservoir zone of trees and other plants. A total of 54,000 acres were cleared, 11,000 of which had as much as tree roots pulled. The cut timber was floated downstream and sold to the highest bidder, Lincoln Lumber Company, who paid $2.25 per a thousand board feet.^[32] The pace of clearing was accelerated in April 1941 when it was declared a national defense project and the last tree was fell on July 19, 1941. The felling was done by Reclamation Supervising Engineer Frank A. Banks and State WPA Administrator Carl W. Smith during a ceremony.^[33] A total of 2,626 people living in five main camps along the Columbia worked on the project and when complete, $4.9 million had been spent in labor.^[34]

Labor and supporting infrastructure

[[File:|thumb|175px|right|Workers installing a penstock section]] Workers building the dam received an average of 80 cents an hour; the payroll for the dam was the largest in the nation. The workers were mainly pulled from Grant, Lincoln, Douglas, and Okanogan Counties and women were only allowed to work at the dorms and the cookhouse.^[7] Around 8,000 people worked on the project and Frank A. Banks served as the chief construction engineer. Bert A Hall was the chief inspector, who would accept the dam from the contractors. Orin G. Patch served as the chief of concrete.^[35][36][11] A total of 77 men died.^[14]

To prepare for construction, housing for workers needed to be constructed along with four bridges downstream of the dam site, one of which, the Grand Coulee Bridge, exists today. The Bureau of Reclamation provided housing and located their administrative building at Engineer's Town which was located directly downstream of the construction site, on the west side of the river.^[26] Opposite Engineer's town, MWAK, a consortium of three companies constructing the low dam, constructed Mason City in 1934. Mason city contained a hospital, post office, electricity, and other amenities along with a population of 3,000. Three-bedroom houses in the city were rented for $32 a month.^[37] Out of the two cities worker living areas, Engineer's City was considered to have the best housing.^[38] Several other towns formed around the construction site is an area known as Shack Town which did not have reliable access to electricity of the same amenities as the other towns.^[39] Incorporated in 1935, the city of Grand Coulee supported workers as well and is located just west of the dam on the plateau.^[40] MWAK eventually sold Mason City to the Bureau of Reclamation in 1937, prior to their contract being completed.^[41] In 1956, Reclamation was allowed to sell the houses and eventually both Mason and Engineer's City combined to form the city of Coulee Dam. In February 1959, Coulee Dam was incorporated as an independent city.^[38]

Later expansions

Third Powerplant

After World War II, the growing demand for electricity sparked interest in constructing another power plant supported by the Grand Coulee Dam.^[42] One major obstacle to an additional power plant was the inconsistent Columbia River flow. During low flow periods, the river flow was between 50,000 cu ft/s (1,400 m³/s) and 80,000 cu ft/s (2,300 m³/s) while maximum spring run-off flows were around 500,000 cu ft/s (14,000 m³/s). As it was, only nine out of the dam's eighteen generators could run year-round while the remaining nine operated for less than six months a year.^[43] In 1952, Congress authorized $125,000 for Reclamation to conduct a feasibility study on the Third Powerplant which was completed in 1953 with two recommended locations. Nine of the same 108 MW generators were recommended but would only be able to operate in periods of high water.^[42]

Regulation of the Columbia's flows would be necessary to make the new power plant feasible but the dam's reservoir extended to the Canadian border. Water storage and regulation projects in Canada were necessary and the Columbia River Treaty, which had been in discussion between the U.S. and Canada since 1944 was seen as the answer. Efforts to build the Third Powerplant were also influenced by competition with the Soviet Union who had constructed power plants on the Volga River that were larger than Grand Coulee.^[44] On September 16, 1964, the Columbia River Treaty was signed and included an agreement by Canada to construct the Duncan, Keenleyside and Mica Dams upstream.^[45] Shortly afterward, Washington Senator Henry M. Jackson, who was influential in constructing the new power plant, announced that Reclamation would present the project to Congress for appropriation and funding.^[46] To keep up with Soviet competition and increase the generating capacity, it was determined that the generators could be upgraded to 300 MW or 600 MW designs. With the possibility of international companies bidding on the project, the Soviets who had just installed a 500 MW hydroelectric generator on the Yenisei River, indicated their interest. To avoid embarrassment, the Department of the Interior declined international bidding. The Third Powerplant was approved and its appropriation bill was signed by Lyndon Johnson on June 14, 1966.^[47]

Between 1967 and 1974 the dam was expanded to add the Third Powerplant. This involved demolishing the northeast side of the dam and building a new fore-bay section. The addition made the original 4,300 ft (1,300 m) dam almost a mile long and accommodated six new generators. Original designs for the powerhouse had twelve smaller units but was changed to incorporate the largest units available. The new turbines and generators, 600 MW units, were at the time nearly the largest units produced, three were later upgraded to 805 MW. The expansion was completed in the early eighties and made the Grand Coulee Dam once again one of the largest hydroelectric producers in the world.^[48]

Pumping station

After power shortages in the Northwest during the 1960s, it was determined that six of the 12 planned pumps be pump-generators. When energy demand is high, the pump generators could generate electricity with water from the Banks Lake feeder canal which site adjacent to the dam and at a higher elevation.^[49] By 1973, the Pump-Generating plant was completed. This included 6 pumps and 6 pump-generators. The six pump-generators added an additional 314 MW capacity to the dam.^[50] In May 2009, the Pump Generating Plant was renamed the John W. Keys III Pump-Generating Power Plant after John W. Keys III, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation's commissioner from 2001 to 2006.^[51] The expansion of the dam also required the installation of over 20 km of oil-cooled cables. These 6-inch cables, made in Japan by Sumitomo Electric, are rated to a maximum potential of 525 kV and are connected to powerful pumps which circulate the oil through the cables during normal operation.

Overhauls

A major overhaul of the Third Powerplant began in March 2008, and will be continuing for many years. Among the projects to be completed before the generators can begin to be overhauled include replacing underground 500 kV oil-filled cables for G19, G20 and G21 generators with overhead transmission lines (started in February 2009 and scheduled to be completed in December 2011), new 236 MW transformers for G19 and G20 (started in November 2006 and scheduled to be completed in December 2011), and several other projects.^[52] Planning, design, procurement and site preparation for the 805 MW G22, G23 and G24 generator overhauls are scheduled to begin in August 2011, with the overhauls themselves to start in March 2013 with the G-24 generator, then G-23 starting in September 2014, and finally G-24 starting in March 2016, with planned completions in September 2014, March 2016 and September 2017, respectively. The generator overhauls for G19, G20 and G21 have yet to be scheduled.^[53]

Operation and benefits

The primary goal of irrigation was postponed as the wartime need for electricity increased. The dam's powerhouse began production around the time World War II began and its electricity was vital to the war effort. The dam helped power aluminum smelters in Longview and Vancouver, Washington along with Boeing factories in Seattle and Vancouver and Portland's shipyards. In 1943, The electricity was also used to power plutonium production in Richland, Washington at the Hanford Site, which was part of the then top-secret Manhattan Project.^[7] So great was the demand for power that in 1943, two generators originally intended for the Shasta Dam were installed.^[54]

Irrigation

The original goal of irrigation resumed after the World War II. In 1945, the plan for a water distribution network was authorized and the Bureau of Reclamation began construction in 1946.^[7] Directly to the west and above of the Grand Coulee Dam, the North Dam was constructed. This dam along with the Dry Falls Dam to the south enclosed and created Banks Lake. Additional dams such as the Pinto and O'Sullivan Dams along with siphons, and canals were constructed, creating a vast irrigation supply network called the Columbia Basin Project. Irrigation began in 1951 after Banks Lake was filled. Water is pumped up 280 feet (85 m) from Lake Roosevelt to a feeder canal then Banks Lake by means of the Pump Generating Plant and 14-foot -wide (4.3 m) pipes. The pumps can transfer up to 1,605-cubic-foot-per-second -wide (45.4 m³/s). Currently, the Columbia Basin Project irrigates 671,000 acres with a potential for 1.1 million.^[49]

Power

Grand Coulee Dam supports four different power houses containing 33 hydroelectric generators. The original Left and Right Powerhouses contain 18 main generators and the Left has an additional three service generators for total installed capacity of 2,280 MW. The first generator was commissioned in 1941 and all 18 were operating by 1950. The Third Powerplant contains a total of six main generators with a 4,215 MW installed capacity. Generators G-19, G-20 and G-21 in the Third Powerplant have a 600 MW installed capacity but can operate at a maximum capacity of 690 MW which brings the overall maximum capacity of the dam's power facilities to 7,079 MW. The Pump-Generating Plant contains six pump-generators with an installed capacity of 314 MW. When pumping water into Banks Lake, they consume 600 MW of electricity. Each generator is supplied with water by an individual penstock. The largest of these feed the Third Powerplant and are 40 ft (12 m) in diameter and can supply up to 35,000 cu ft/s (990 m³/s). The dam's power facilities originally had an installed capacity of 1,974 MW but expansions and upgrades have increased generation to 6,809 MW installed, 7,079 MW maximum. In 2008, close to 2 billion kWh of electricity was generated with a plant factor of 38.24%.^[55]

Spillway

Grand Coulee Dam's spillway is 1,650 feet (500 m) long and is an overflow, drum-gate controlled type with a 1,000,000 cu ft/s (28,000 m³/s) maximum capacity.^[57]. A record severe flood in May and June of 1948 flooded lowland below the dam and highlighted its limited flood control capability at the time^[58], as its spillway and turbines hit a record flow of 637,800-cubic-foot-per-second -wide (18,060 m³/s).^[49] The flood damaged river banks downstream of the dam and also deteriorated the face of the dam and its flip bucket, at the base (toe) of the spillway.^[59] The flooding in 1948 spurred efforts to further regulate flows on the Columbia, much of which was centered on the Columbia River Treaty and its provisions for dams constructed upstream in Canada.^[60]

Cost benefits

The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in 1932 estimated the cost of the Grand Coulee Dam, with the exception of the Third Power Plant, to be $168 million but its actual cost was $163 million ($2.5 billion in $2009).^{[nb 1]} Expenses to finish the power stations and repair design flaws with the dam throughout the 1940s and 50s added another $107 million bringing the total cost to $270 million ($4.2 billion in 2009), about 33% over estimates.^[61] The Third Powerplant was estimated to cost $390 million in 1967 but higher construction costs and labor disputes drove the projects final cost in 1973 to $790 million ($3.7 billion in $2009), about 55% over estimates. Despite estimates being exceeded, the dam became an economic success, particularly with the Third Powerplant exhibiting a benefit-cost ratio of 2:1.^[45] Although the Bureau of Reclamation has only irrigated about one half of the land predicted, the gross value of crop output (in constant dollars) had doubled from 1962 to 1992, largely due to different farming practices and crop choices.^[62]

Environmental and social consequences

The dam had severe negative consequences for the local Native American tribes whose traditional way of life revolved around salmon as well as for the original shrub steppe habitat of the area. Without a fish ladder, Grand Coulee Dam permanently blocks fish migration^[63] removing over a thousand miles of spawning grounds.^[64] By largely eliminating anadromous fish above the Okanogan River, the Grand Coulee Dam also set the stage for the subsequent decision not to provide for fish passage at Chief Joseph Dam (built in 1953)^[65]. Chinook, Steelhead, Sockeye and Coho salmon (as well as other important species including Lamprey) are now unable to spawn in the reaches of the Upper Columbia Basin. The extinction of the spawning grounds upstream from the dam has prevented the Spokane and other tribes from holding the first salmon ceremony.^[66]

Grand Coulee Dam flooded over 21,000 acres (85 km²) of prime bottom land where Native Americans had been living and hunting for thousands of years, forcing the relocation of settlements and graveyards.^[67] Kettle Falls, once a primary Native American fishing grounds, was inundated. The average catch went from a historical average of over 600,000 salmon a year to nothing. In one study, the Army Corps of Engineers estimated the annual loss was over a million fish.^[68] In June 1941, Native Americans throughout the Northwest met at the Falls for a Ceremony of Tears, marking the end of fishing there and a month later, the falls were inundated.^[66] The town of Kettle Falls, Washington was relocated. The Columbia Basin Project has affected habitat ranges for species such as whitetail and mule deer, pygmy rabbits and burrowing owls, resulting in decreased populations. However, it has created new habitat in the form of wetlands, reservoirs, and riparian corridors.^[69] The environmental impact of the dam effectively ended the traditional way of life of the native inhabitants. The government eventually compensated the Colville Indians in the 1990s with a lump settlement of approximately $53 million, plus annual payments of approximately $15 million.^[70]

Touring the dam

The visitor center contains many historical photos, geological samples, turbine and dam models, and a well used theater. Since May 1989, on summer evenings, The laser light show at Grand Coulee Dam is projected onto the dam's wall. The show includes full-size images of battleships and the Statue of Liberty, as well as some environmental comments. Tours of the new Third Powerhouse are available to the public but have been scaled back for security reasons. Visitors are able to ride a glass elevator, on top of the forebay penstocks, 400 feet down to view the generators.

fields end to end.]]

Cultural references

Woody Guthrie sings about the dam in both "Grand Coulee Dam" and "End of the Line."

In the song "Idiot Wind" by Bob Dylan the dam is mentioned in the line "From the Grand Coulee Dam to the capital".

During the second season of the cartoon Venture Bros., in the second episode, titled "Hate Floats"; the Venture brothers' learning beds teach them correctly that, "the Grand Coulee Dam. The largest concrete structure in the United States. Construction began in...."

See Also

• Energy policy of the United States
• John L. Savage - The Bureau of Reclamation's chief design engineer during construction.
• List of largest hydroelectric power stations
• List of largest power stations in the world
• List of dam megaprojects
• List of power stations in the United States

References

Notes

1. ^ 2009 inflation estimates were calculated with The Inflation Calculator.

Bibliography

• Bottenberg, Ray (2008), Images of America:Grand Coulee Dam, Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7385-5612-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=ftwOW2RUzdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Grand+Coulee+Dam++By+Ray+Bottenberg&hl=en&ei=bfyvTMn_CMf4cbvF2FQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsefirst1=Ray 
• Downs, L. Vaugh (1993), The Mightiest of Them All: Memories of Grand Coulee Dam, USA: American Society of Civil Engineers, ISBN 0-87262-935-X, http://books.google.com/books?id=3jwKsyNHpJoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false 
• McKay, Kathryn L.; Renk, Nancy F. (2002), Currents and Undercurrents: An Administrative History of Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area., Coulee Dam, Washington: Lake Roosevelt Recreation Area, National Park Service, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED476001 
• Ortolano, Leonard; Cushing, Kao (2000), Grand Coulee Dam and the Columbia Basin Project USA, Annexes, Cape Town, South Africa: World Commission on Dams, http://www.dams.org/docs/kbase/studies/csusmain.pdf 
• Pitzer, Paul C. (1994), Grand Coulee: Harnessing a Dream, Pullman, WA: Washington State University, ISBN 0874221102, http://www.amazon.com/Grand-Coulee-Harnessing-Paul-Pitzer/dp/0874221102 
• State of, Washington (1947), Grand Coulee Dam: Eighth Wonder of the World, Washington State: Times Publishing Co., http://content.lib.washington.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/grandcoulee&CISOPTR=426&CISOSHOW=339 

Further reading

• J. Harlen Brentz: The Grand Coulee (American Geographical Society, 1932).
• Marcia S. Gresko: The Grand Coulee Dam (Blackbirch Press, 1999).
• George Sundborg: Hail Columbia: The Thirty-year Struggle for Grand Coulee Dam (New York: Macmillan, 1954).
• Richard White: The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).

External links

• Official web site - U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
• GrandCouleeDam.org Informational web site
• Grand Coulee Dam Columbia Basin Project Historical site Personal interest site maintained by Charles Hubbard
• University of Idaho Libraries Digital Collections- Dam Construction in the Pacific Northwest Photographs of the construction of the Columbia Basin Project, with a special emphasis on the construction of Grand Coulee Dam.
• University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Grand Coulee Dam Photographs and pamphlets of the construction of the dam. Includes information about the recommendations for and against building the dam as well as images of land clearing activities by the Public Works Administration.
• Central Washington University Library Digital Collections The Rufus Woods Photograph Collection contains photographic prints and negatives of the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State prior to, during and after construction. The photographs visually document the construction of the dam, the conditions in the Columbia River Basin throughout construction and the introduction of irrigation in north central Washington State
• University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Excerpt from the book Grand Coulee: harnessing a dream, by Paul C. Pitzer, Pullman, Wash.: Washington State University Press, 1994