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Human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive oropharyngeal cancer, also known as HPV16-positive oropharyngeal cancer or HPV OPC, is a recognized subtype of Oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC),[1][2][3] associated with the HPV type 16 virus. It is, after cervical cancer, the second most widely accepted HPV-associated malignancy.[3]

Contents

Causes

It is generally assumed that HPV infection precedes the development of HPV-positive OSCC.[4]

Immuno-suppression seems to be an increased risk factor for HPV-positive OSCC.[4]

Although evidence suggests that HPV-positive OSCC is the main cause of OSCC between non-smokers and non-drinkers, the degree to which tobacco and/or alcohol use may contribute to increase the risk of HPV-positive OSCC is unclear.[4]

A 1999 study has found that patients with human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated anogenital cancers had a 4.3-fold increased risk of tonsillar squamous-cell carcinoma.[5]

Diagnosis

Genetic signatures of HPV-related and HPV-unrelated OSCC are different.[6][7][8][9][10] HPV OPC is associated with expression level of the E6/E7 mRNAs and of p16.[11] Nonkeratinizing squamous cell carcinoma strongly predicts HPV-association.[12][13]

There's not a standard HPV testing method in head and neck cancers.[14]

Prevention

Risk factors are high number of sexual partners,[15][16][17] (25% increase >= 6 partners)[18] history of oral-genital sex,[16][17] (125% >= 4 partners)[18] history of anal–oral sex,[16] female partner had a history of either an abnormal Pap smear or a cervical dysplasia,[16][19] frequent marijuana use[20], chronic periodontitis,[21] and, among men, decreasing age at first intercourse[15] and history of genital warts[15].

A 2010 study concluded that current tobacco users with advanced, HPV-positive OSCC are at higher risk of disease recurrence compared with never-tobacco users.[22]

Treatment

Currently HPV-positive OSCC are treated similarly to stage-matched and site-matched unrelated OSCC. However less intensive use of radiotherapy or chemotherapy, as well as specific therapy, is under research.[3]

Prognosis

Tumor HPV status is strongly associated with positive therapeutic response and survival compared with non HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer.[23] It's believed that better results of radiation and cisplatin is caused by an induced immune response not by tumor increased epithelial sensitivity.[24]

Epidemiology

Currently in the US there is a growing incidence of HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancers,[25][26][27] perhaps as a result of changing sexual behaviors.[28][29] Tonsil and oropharyngeal cancers increased in male predominance between 1975 and 2004, despite reductions in smoking[30].

The higher increase incidence of HPV associated OPC is also seen in other countries, like Sweden[31], Finland[32] and Czech Republic[33]. On the other hand the role of HPV in the cases of oropharyngeal cancer is lower in countries like China[34] where smoking, a known cause of non-HPV oropharyngeal cancer, is high and sexual behaviors are more conservative.

In Australia incidence of HPV associated OPC is 1.56 cases per 100,000 males/year.[35]

History

In 1983, it was first suggested[4] that HPV might be the agent involved in the development of at least certain special types of oral SCCs.[36]

See also

References

  1. ^ Westra, W. H. (2009). "The Changing Face of Head and Neck Cancer in the 21st Century: the Impact of HPV on the Epidemiology and Pathology of Oral Cancer". Head and Neck Pathology 3: 78–81. doi:10.1007/s12105-009-0100-y.  edit
  2. ^ Gillison, ML; Koch, WM; Capone, RB; Spafford, M; Westra, WH; Wu, L; Zahurak, ML; Daniel, RW et al. (May 2000). "Evidence for a causal association between human papillomavirus and a subset of head and neck cancers" (Free full text). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 92 (9): 709–20. doi:10.1093/jnci/92.9.709. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 10793107. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10793107.  edit
  3. ^ a b c Psyrri, A.; Gouveris, P.; Vermorken, J. B. (2009). "Human papillomavirus-related head and neck tumors: clinical and research implication". Current Opinion in Oncology 21: 201. doi:10.1097/CCO.0b013e328329ab64. http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/merck/fulltext.00001622-200905000-00004.htm.  edit
  4. ^ a b c d Mannarini, L; Kratochvil, V; Calabrese, L; Gomes Silva, L; Morbini, P; Betka, J; Benazzo, M (2009). "Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) in head and neck region: review of literature". Acta otorhinolaryngologica Italica : organo ufficiale della Societa italiana di otorinolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale 29 (3): 119–26. PMID 20140157.  edit
  5. ^ Frisch, M.; Biggar, R. (1999). "Aetiological parallel between tonsillar and anogenital squamous-cell carcinomas". The Lancet 354: 1442. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)92824-6.  edit
  6. ^ Klussmann, J.; Mooren, J.; Lehnen, M.; Claessen, S.; Stenner, M.; Huebbers, C.; Weissenborn, S.; Wedemeyer, I. et al. (Mar 2009). "Genetic signatures of HPV-related and unrelated oropharyngeal carcinoma and their prognostic implications". Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research 15 (5): 1779–1786. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-08-1463. ISSN 1078-0432. PMID 19223504.  edit
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  13. ^ Elmofty, S.; Patil, S. (2006). "Human papillomavirus (HPV)-related oropharyngeal nonkeratinizing squamous cell carcinoma: Characterization of a distinct phenotype". Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology 101: 339–345. doi:10.1016/j.tripleo.2005.08.001.  edit
  14. ^ Robinson, M.; Sloan, P.; Shaw, R. (2010). "Refining the diagnosis of oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma using human papillomavirus testing.". Oral oncology. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2010.02.013. PMID 20227331.  edit
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  21. ^ Tezal, M.; Sullivan Nasca, M.; Stoler, D.; Melendy, T.; Hyland, A.; Smaldino, P.; Rigual, N.; Loree, T. (Apr 2009). "Chronic periodontitis-human papillomavirus synergy in base of tongue cancers". Archives of otolaryngology--head & neck surgery 135 (4): 391–396. doi:10.1001/archoto.2009.6. ISSN 0886-4470. PMID 19380363.  edit
  22. ^ Maxwell, J. H.; Kumar, B.; Feng, F. Y.; Worden, F. P.; Lee, J. S.; Eisbruch, A.; Wolf, G. T.; Prince, M. E. et al. (2010). "Tobacco Use in Human Papillomavirus-Positive Advanced Oropharynx Cancer Patients Related to Increased Risk of Distant Metastases and Tumor Recurrence". Clinical Cancer Research 16 (4): 1226. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-09-2350. PMID 20145161.  edit
  23. ^ Fakhry, C.; Westra, W.; Li, S.; Cmelak, A.; Ridge, J.; Pinto, H.; Forastiere, A.; Gillison, M. (Feb 2008). "Improved survival of patients with human papillomavirus-positive head and neck squamous cell carcinoma in a prospective clinical trial" (Free full text). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 100 (4): 261–269. doi:10.1093/jnci/djn011. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 18270337. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18270337.  edit
  24. ^ Spanos, W. C.; Nowicki, P.; Lee, D. W.; Hoover, A.; Hostager, B.; Gupta, A.; Anderson, M. E.; Lee, J. H. (2009). "Immune Response During Therapy with Cisplatin or Radiation for Human Papillomavirus-Related Head and Neck Cancer". Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 135 (11): 1137. doi:10.1001/archoto.2009.159. PMID 19917928.  edit
  25. ^ Sturgis, E.; Cinciripini, P. (Oct 2007). "Trends in head and neck cancer incidence in relation to smoking prevalence: an emerging epidemic of human papillomavirus-associated cancers?". Cancer 110 (7): 1429–1435. doi:10.1002/cncr.22963. ISSN 0008-543X. PMID 17724670.  edit
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  33. ^
    1. REDIRECTTemplate:Cite doi/10.1111.2Fj.1601-0825.2005.01112.x edit
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  • ^ Hong, A. M.; Grulich, A. E.; Jones, D.; Lee, C. S.; Garland, S. M.; Dobbins, T. A.; Clark, J. R.; Harnett, G. B. et al. (2010). "Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx in Australian males induced by human papillomavirus vaccine targets". Vaccine. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.098.  edit
  • ^ Syrjänen, K; Syrjänen, S; Lamberg, M; Pyrhönen, S; Nuutinen, J (1983). "Morphological and immunohistochemical evidence suggesting human papillomavirus (HPV) involvement in oral squamous cell carcinogenesis". International journal of oral surgery 12 (6): 418–24. doi:10.1016/S0300-9785(83)80033-7. PMID 6325356.  edit
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