Wikis
Quiz
Facts
Map
| 4th | Top invasions: 900 â 1199 |
| 1st | Top archaeological sites in Thurrock |
The history of Anglo-Saxon England covers the history of England from the end of Roman Britain and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the fifth century until the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Anglo-Saxon is a general term that refers to tribes of German origin who came to Britain, including Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes.
As the Roman occupation of England was coming to an end, Constantine III withdrew the remains of the army, in reaction to the barbarian invasion of Europe.[1][2] The Romano-British leaders were faced with an increasing security problem from sea borne raids particularly by Picts on the East coast of England.[3] The expedient adopted by the Romano-British leaders was to enlist the help of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries (known as foederati) to whom they ceded territory.[3][4] In about 442AD the Anglo-Saxons mutinied apparently because they had not been paid adequately.[5] The British responded by appealing to the Roman commander of the Western empire Aëtius for help (known as the Groans of the Britons) even though Honorius the Western Roman Emperor had written to the British civitas in about 410AD to look to their own defence.[6][7][8][9] There then followed several years of fighting between the British and the Anglo-Saxons.[10] The period of fighting continued till about 500AD, when at the Battle of Mount Badon, the Britons inflicted a severe defeat on the Anglo-Saxons.[11]
There is a wide range of source material that covers Anglo-Saxon England.
There are literary sources:
Other written sources include:
None literary sources include:
There are records of Germanic infiltration into Britain that date before the collapse of the Roman Empire.[23] It is believed that the earliest Germanic visitors were eight cohorts of Batavians attached to the Legio XIV Gemina in the original invasion force under Aulus Plautius in 43AD.[23][24][25]
It was quite common for Rome to swell its legions with foederati recruited from the German homelands.[26] This practice also extended to the army serving in Britain and graves of these mercernaries along with their families can be identified in the Roman cemeteries of the period.[27] The migration continued with the departure of the Roman army when Anglo-Saxons were recruited to defend Britain and also during the period of the Anglo-Saxon first rebellion of 442AD.[28]
After the defeat of the Anglo-Saxons by the British, at the Battle of Mount Badon, in c.500AD, where according to Gildas the British resistance was led by a man called Ambrosius Aurelianus, Anglo-Saxon migration was temporarly stemmed..[11] [29] Gildas also said that it was "forty-four years and one month" after the arrival of the Saxons, and was the year of his birth.[11] He said what followed was a time of great prosperity.[11] But despite the lull the Anglo-Saxons took control of Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and part of Yorkshire,and the West Saxons founded a kingdom in Hampshire under Cerdic around 520AD.[30] However it was to be 50 years before the Anglo-Saxons began further major advances.[30] In the intervening years the Britons exhausted themselves with civil war, internal disputes and general unrest, which was the inspiration behind Gildas and his De Excidio Britanniae (The Ruin of Britain).[31]
The next major campaign against the Britons was in 577AD, led by Cealin, king of Wessex, whose campaigns succeeded in taking Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath (known as the Battle of Dyrham).[30][32][33] This expansion of Wessex ended abruptly when the English started fighting amongst themselves, which resulted in Cealin eventually having to retreat to his original territory and then being being replaced by Ceol (possibly his nephew), Cealin was killed the following year, the annals do not specify by whom.[34][35] And Cirencester became an Anglo-Saxon kingdom under the overlordship of the Mercians rather than Wessex.[36].
If the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles are to be believed, then the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that eventually merged to become England, were founded when small fleets of three or five ships of invaders arrived at various points around the coast of England to fight the Sub-Roman British and conquer their lands.[37] As Margaret Gelling points out, when talking of place name evidence, what actually happened between the departure of the Romans and the coming of the Normans is subject to much debate by historians.[38]
The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain can be seen in the context of a general movement of German people around Europe between the years 300 and 700 AD known as the Migration period (also called the Barbarian Invasions or Völkerwanderung). In the same time period there were migrations of Britons to the Amorican peninsula (Brittany and Normandy in modern day France) initially at around 383AD during Roman rule but also c.460 AD and the 540s and 550s AD, the 460s migration is thought to be a reaction to the fighting during the Anglo-Saxon mutiny between about 450 to 500 AD, as was the migration to Britonia (modern day Galicia, in northwest Spain) at about the same time.[39]
The historian Peter Hunter-Blair expounded probably what is now regarded as the traditional view of the Anglo-Saxon arrival in Britain.[40] That is of mass immigration and fighting and driving the Sub-Roman Britons off their land into the western extremities of the islands and the Breton and Iberian peninsulas.[41] The more modern view is of co-existence between the British and the Anglo-Saxons.[22][42] Discussions and analysis still continues on the size of the migration and whether it was a small elite band of Anglo-Saxons who came in and took over the running of the country or was it indeed a mass migration of peoples who overwhelmed the Britons?[43][44][45]
By 600AD a new order was developing of kingdoms and sub-Kingdoms, Henry of Huntingdon (a medieval historian) conceived the idea of the Heptarchy which consisted of the seven principal Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.[46]
The four main kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England were:
Minor kingdoms:
At the end of the 6th century the most powerful ruler in England was Æthelberht of Kent whose lands extended north to the Humber.[47] In the early years of the 7th century Kent and East-Anglia were the leading English kingdoms.[48] After the death of Æthelberht in 616 Rædwald of East Anglia became the most powerful leader south of the Humber.[48]
Following the death of Æthelfrith of Northumbria, Rædwald provided military assistance to the Deiran Edwin, in his struggle to take over the two dynasties of Deira and Bernicia in the unified kingdom of Northumbria.[48] Then on the death of Rædwald, Edwin was able to pursue a grand plan to expand Northumbrian power .[48]
The growing strength of Edwin of Northumbria forced the Anglo-Saxon Mercians, under Penda into an alliance with the Welsh King Cadwallon of Gwynedd , and together they invaded Edwin's lands and defeated and killed him at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633.[49][50] The success was short-lived as in his turn, Oswald (one of the dead King of Northumbria, Æthelfrith's sons) defeated and killed Cadwallon at Heavenfield near Hexham.[51] In less than a decade Penda again waged war against Northumbria and killed Oswald in battle during 642AD.[52] His brother Oswiu was chased to the northern extremes of his kingdom.[52] [53] However Oswiu killed Penda shortly after and Mercia spent the rest of the 7th and 8th centuries fighting the kingdom of Powys. [52] The war reached its climax during the reign of Offa of Mercia.[52] Offa is remembered for the construction of an 150 mile (240 km) long dyke on the Wales/ England border.[54] It is not sure whether this was just a boundary line or a defensive position[54] The ascendency of the Mercians came to an end, in 825AD, when they were soundly beaten under Beornwulf at the Battle of Ellendun by Egbert of Wessex.[55]
Christianity was introduced to the British Isles during the Roman occupation.[56] The early Christian Berber author Tertullian, in the third century, wrote that "Christianity could even be found in Britain."[57] The Roman Emperor Constantine (306-337AD), granted official tolerance to Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD.[58] Then in the reign of Emperor Theodosius "the Great" (378-395AD), Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire[59]
It is not entirely clear how many Britons would have been Christian when the pagan Anglo-Saxons arrived.[60][61] There had been attempts to evangelise the Irish by Pope Celestine in 431AD.[62] However, it was Saint Patrick who is credited with converting the Irish en-masse.[62] A Christian Ireland set about evangelising the rest of the British Isles so Columba was sent to found the religious community in Iona, off the west coast of Scotland.[63] Then Aidan was sent from Iona to set up his see in Northumbria at Lindisfarne between 635- 651AD.[64] Thus Northumbria was converted by the Celtic (Irish) church.[64]
Bede is very uncomplimentary about the British clergy, in his Historia ecclesiastica, he complains of their unspeakable crimes and that they did not preach the faith to the Angles or Saxons.[65] Pope Gregory sent Augustine in 597AD to convert the Anglo-Saxons and Bede says that the British clergy refused to help Augustine in his mission.[66][67] Despite Bede's complaints it is now believed that the Britons played an important role in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons.[68] On arrival in the south east of England in 597 AD , Augustine was given land by King Æthelberht of Kent to build a church; so in 597AD Augustine built the church and founded the See at Canterbury.[69] He baptised Æthelberht in 601AD, then continued with his mission to convert the English.[70] Most of the north and east of England had already been evangelised by the Irish Church, however Sussex and the Isle of Wight remained (mostly) pagan until the arrival of Saint Wilfrid, the exiled Archbishop of York, who converted Sussex around 681AD and the Isle of Wight in 683AD.[71][72][73]
Even after the Anglo-Saxons had been converted to Christianity, there was friction between the followers of the Roman rites and the Irish rites, particularly over the date when Easter fell and the way monks cut their hair.[74] So in 664AD a conference was held at Whitby Abbey (known as the Whitby Synod) to decide the matter, Saint Wilfrid was an advocate for the Roman rites and Bishop Colmán for the Irish rites.[75] Wilfrid's argument won the day and Coleman and his party returned to Ireland in their bitter disappointment.[75] And so the Roman rites were adopted by the English church although they were not universally accepted by the Irish Church initially.[75]
Between the eighth and eleventh century raiders, conquerors and colonists from Scandinavia, mainly Danish and Norwegian, plundered western Europe including the British Isles.[76] These raiders came to be known as the Vikings; the name was believed to have been derived from Scandinavia where the Vikings originated.[77][78] The first raids in the British Isles were in the late eighth century and mainly on churches and monasteries.[77][79]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles report that the holy island of Lindisfarne was sacked in 793AD.[81] The raiding then virtually stopped for about forty years, but in about 835AD they started becoming more regular.[82]
In the 860's, instead of raids, the Danes mounted a full scale invasion, and 865 marked the arrival of an enlarged army that the Anglo-Saxons described as the Great Heathen Army. This was reinforced in 871 by the Great Summer Army.[82] Within ten years nearly all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fell to the invader, Northumbria in 867, East Anglia in 869 and nearly all of Mercia in 874 - 7.[82] Kingdoms, centres of learning, archives, churches all seem to fall with the onslaught from the invading Danes. Only the Kingdom of Wessex was able to hang on.[82] Then in March of 878AD the Anglo-Saxon King of Wessex, Alfred and a few men built a fortress at Athelney, in Somerset.[83]. He used this as a base to attack the Vikings, and in May 878AD he put together an army with people from Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire and fought the Viking army at Edington[83]. The Viking army retreated to their stronghold and Alfred laid siege.[83] Ultimately the Danes capitulated and their leader Gunthrum agreed to being baptised and also to withdraw from Wessex, the formal ceremony was completed a few days later at Wedmore.[83][84]. There followed a peace treaty between Alfred and Guthrum that had a variety of clauses including defining the boundaries of the area to be ruled by the Danes (which became known as Danelaw) and of Wessex.[85] Wessex controlled part of the Midlands and the whole of the south (except Cornwall which was still held by the Britons), while the Danes were in East Anglia and the north.[86]
After the victory at Edington and the resultant peace treaty, Alfred set about transforming his Kingdom of Wessex into a society on a full time war footing.[87] He built a navy, reorganised the army and set up a system of fortified towns known as burhs. He mainly used old Roman cities for his burhs, as he was able to rebuild and reinforce their existing fortifications.[87] To maintain the burhs, and the standing army, he set up a taxation system known as the Burghal Hidage.[88] The burh worked as defensive structures, after an initial foray, the Vikings were unable to cross large sections of Wessex and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that a Danish raiding party were defeated when they tried to attack the burh of Chichester.[89][90] The burhs although primarily designed as defensive structures worked as commercial centres with traders and markets, they provided a safe place for the kings moneyers and mints too.[91]
A new wave of Danish invasions commenced in the year 891AD.[92] This was the beginning of a war that lasted over three years.[93][94] However, Alfred's new system of defence worked and ultimately it wore the Danes down, with them giving up and dispersing in the summer of 896AD.[94]
Alfred will also be remembered as a literate king, he or his court commissioned the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, these were written in Old English, rather than in Latin (as with other European annals).[95] Alfred's own literary output was of translations, although he would write introductions and amend manuscripts as well.[95] [96]
On Alfred's death in 899AD his son Edward the Elder, succeeded him.[97] Alfred's son Edward and grandsons Æthelstan, Edmund I and Eadred continued the policy of resistance against the Vikings.[98] From 874 - 879AD the western half of Mercia was ruled by Ceowulf II, he was succeeded by Æthelred.[99] In 886/ 887 Æthelred married Alfred's daughter Æthelflæd.[99] When Æthelred died in 911AD his widow administerd the Mercian province with the title "Lady of the Mercians".[99] As commander of the Mercian army she worked with her brother Edward the Elder to win back the Mercian lands that were under Danish control.[99] Edward and his successors made burhs a key element of their strategy which enabled them to go on the offensive.[98][100] Edward recaptured Essex in 913AD Edward's son Æthelstan annexed Northumbria, and forced the kings of Wales to submit and, at the battle of Brunanburh in 937AD, defeated an alliance of the Scots, Danes and Vikings to become King of all England.[98][101] However it was not only the Britons and the settled Danes, who disliked being ruled by Wessex, so did some of the other Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, consequently the death of a Wessex king would be followed by rebellion particularly in Northumbria.[98] But in 973AD Alfred's great grandson was crowned King of England and Emperor of Britain at Bath.[102] On his coinage he had inscribed EDGAR REX ANGLORUM 'Edgar King of the English'. Edgars coronation was a magnificent affair and a lot of its rituals and words could still be seen in the coronation of Elizabeth II of England in 1953, although in English rather than Latin.[103]
The effects of Danish and Norse settlers, in Danelaw, has had a lasting impact; the people there saw themselves as "armies" a hundred years after settlement.[104] King Edgar issued a law code in 962AD , it was to include the people of Northumbria, so he addressed it to Earl Olac and all the army that live in that earldom.[104] There are over 3000 words in modern English that have Scandinavian roots.[105][106] Also, in England more than 1,500 place-names are Scandinavian in origin; topographic names such as Howe, Norfolk and Howe, North Yorkshire, are derived from the Old Norse word haugr meaning hill, knoll or mound.[106][107]
Two years after his coronation at Bath, Edgar died, while still only in his early thirties.[108] Edgar left two surviving sons Edward (the eldest) and his half-brother Æthelred.[108] Edward was crowned king at Kingston, but three years later he was assassinated by one of his half-brothers retainers with the assistance of Æthelreds stepmother.[108] Æthelred II was crowned and although he reigned for thirty eight years, one of the longest in English history, he earnt the name "Æthelred the Unready" as he turned out to be one of Englands most disastrous kings.[109]William of Malmesbury writing in his "Chronicle of the kings of England", about one hundred years later, was scathing in his criticism of Æthelred, saying that he occupied the kingdom rather than governed it.[110]
Just as Æthelred was being crowned the Danish King Gormsson was trying to enforce Christianity onto his domain.[111] Many of his subjects did not like this idea and shortly before 988, Swein his son, and followers, drove his father from the kingdom.[111] The rebels dispossessed at home, probably formed the first waves of raids on the English coast.[111] The rebels did so well in their raiding that the Danish kings decided to take over the campaign themselves.[112]
In 991 the Vikings sacked Ipswich, the fleet made landfall near Maldon in Essex.[112] The Danes demanded that the English pay a ransom, the English commander Byrhtnoth refused, in the following Battle of Maldon he was killed and the English easily defeated.[112] From then on the Vikings seem to raid anywhere at will, they were contemptuous of the lack of resistance from the English, even the Alfredian systems of burhs failed.[113] Æthelred seems to have just hidden himself away out of range of the raiders.[113]
By the 980s the kings of Wessex had a powerful grip on the coinage of the realm, it is reckoned that there were about 300 moneyers and 60 mints around the country.[114] Every five or six years the coinage in circulation would cease to be legal tender and new coins were issued.[114] The system controlling the currency around the country was extremely sophisticated, this enabled the king to raise large sums of money if needed.[115][116] The ability to raise large sums of money was needed after the battle of Maldon, as Æthelred decided rather than fight, he would pay ransom to the Danes in a system known as Danegeld.[117] As part of the ransom a peace treaty was drawn up that was intended to stop the raids, however, rather than buying the Vikings off it only encouraged them to come back for more.[118]
The Dukes of Normandy were quite happy to allow these Danish adventurers to use their ports for raids on the English coast.[111] The result was the courts of England and Normandy became increasingly hostile to each other.[111] Eventually, Æthelred sought a treaty with the Normans and ended up marrying Emma, daughter of Richard I the Duke of Normandy in the Spring of 1002AD, which was seen as an attempt to break the link between the raiders and Normandy.[113][119]
On St Brices day in November 1002AD, Danes living in England were slaughtered on the orders of Æthelred.[120]
In the summer of 1013AD, Sven Forkbeard, King of Denmark brought the Danish fleet to Sandwich, Kent.[121] From there he went north to Danelaw, where the locals immediately agreed to support him.[121] He then struck south forcing Æthelred into exile in Normandy (1013–1014), however on 3 February 1014 Sven suddenly died.[121] Æthelred, capitalising on Svens death, returned to England and drove Svens son Cnut, back to Denmark, Cnut abandoning his allies in the process[121] In 1015 Cnut launched a new campaign against England.[121] Edmund, fell out with his father Æthelred and struck out on his own.[122] Some of the English leaders decided to support Cnut rather than Æthelred, so ultimately Æthelred, reconciled with Edmund retreated to London.[122] Before there was an engagement with the Danish army, Æthelred died and was replaced by Edmund as king.[122]
The Danish army encircled and besieged London, however Edmund was able to escape and raise an army of loyalists.[122] Edmunds army routed the Danes, but the success was short-lived, as at the battle of Ashingdon, the Danes were victorious and a lot of the English leaders were killed.[122] However Cnut and Edmund agreed to split the kingdom in two, with Edmund ruling Wessex and Cnut the rest.[122][123] The following year (1017AD) Edmund died in mysterious circumstances and the English council (witan) confirmed Cnut king of all England.[122]
Cnut divided England in to earldoms, most of these were allocated to nobles of Danish descent, but he made an Englishman earl of Wessex, the man he appointed was Godwin, who eventually became part of the extended royal family when he married the kings sister in law.[124] In the summer of 1017, Cnut sent for Æthelred's widow, Emma with the intention of marrying her.[125] It seems that Emma agreed to marry the king on condition that he would limit the English succession to the children born of their union.[126] Cnut already had a wife known as Ælfgifu of Northampton that had bore him two sons, Svein and Harold Harefoot.[126] However it seems that the church regarded Ælfgifu as Cnut's concubine rather than wife.[126] As well as the two sons he had with Ælfgifu of Northampton, he had a further son with Emma who was named Harthacnut.[126][127]
When Cnut's brother, Harald II, King of Denmark, died in 1018 Cnut went to Denmark to secure that realm.[127] Two years later, Cnut brought Norway under his control and he gave Ælfgifu of Northampton and their son Svein the job of governing it.[127]
One of the outcomes of Cnuts marriage to Emma was to precipitate a succession crisis after his death in 1035AD.[127] The throne was disputed between Ælfgifu's son, Harald Harefoot and Emmas son Harthacnut.[128] Emma supported Hathacnut rather than her sons by Æthelred.[129] Her son by Æthelred, Edward made an unsuccessful raid on Southampton and his brother Albert was murdered on an expedition to England in 1036.[129] Emma fled to Bruges when Harald Harefoot became king of England although when he died in 1040 Harthacnut was able to take over as king.[128] Harthacnut quickly developed a reputation for imposing high taxes on England.[128] In fact he became so unpopular that Edward was invited to return from exile in Normandy to be recognised as Harthacnuts heir.[129][130] However, Harthacnut suddenly died in 1042 and Edward (the Confessor) became king.[129]
Edward was supported by Earl Godwin of Wessex, and Edward married the earls daughter, however this was seen as something of an expedient as Godwin had been implicated in the murder of Alfred, the kings brother.[129] In 1051 one of Edwards in-laws Eustace arrived to take up residence in Dover, the men of Dover objected and killed some of Eustaces men.[129] When Godwin refused to punish them the king, who had been unhappy with the Godwins for some time, summoned them to trial, Stigand the Archbishop of Canterbury being chosen to deliver the news to Godwin and his family.[131] The Godwins fled rather than face trial.[131] It is thought that at this time Edward offered the succession to William of Normandy, a relation on his mother Emmas side of the family.[129] The Godwins threatened to invade England and Edward is said to have wanted to fight, but at a great council meeting in Westminster Earl Godwin lay down all his weapons and asked the king to allow him to purge himself of all crimes.[132] The king and Godwin were reconcilled.[132] The Godwins then became the most powerful family in England after the king.[133][134] On Godwins death in 1053, his son Harold succeeded to the earldom of Wessex; Harolds brothers Gyrth, Leofrine and Tostig were given East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria.[133] Tostig was disliked by the Northumbrians for his harsh behaviour and was expelled to an exile in Flanders, in the process falling out with his brother Harold who supported the kings line in backing the Northumbrians.[135][136]
On the 26th December 1065, Edward was taken ill[137][138] He took to his bed and fell into a coma, at one point he woke and turned to Harold Godwinson and asked him to protect the Queeen and the kingdom.[137][139] On the 5 thJanuary 1066 Edward the Confessor died, Harold was declared king.[138][139] The following day, the 6 th of January 1066 Edward was buried and Harold crowned .[139][140]
Although Harold Godwinson had grabbed the crown of England there were others who laid claim, primarily William, Duke of Normandy who was cousin to Edward the Confessor through his aunt, Emma of Normandy.[141] It is believed that Edward had promised the crown to William.[129] Harold had agreed to support Williams claim after being imprisoned by a count Guy in Normandy.[142] William had demanded and received Harolds release, then during his stay under Williams protection it is claimed, by the Normans, that Harold swore a solemn oath of loyalty to William.[142]
Harald Hardrada ('The Ruthless') of Norway had a claim on England, through Cnut and his successors.[141] He also had a claim based on a pact between Hathacnut, King of Denmark(Cnuts son) and Magnus, King of Norway. [141]Tostig, Harolds estranged brother, decided to throw his support behind Harold Hardrada.[141][142]
Tostig, was the first to make a move, he left his exile in Flanders to raid the South Coast of England.[143] Harald Hardrada assembled his fleet in Scotland where Tostig joined him.[141] From there he sailed down the east coast to Yorkshire.[141] Harold Godwinsons army had to be marched up from the south coast.[141] The two armies met at Stamford Bridge where Godwinson was victorious, Hardrada and Godwinsons brother Tostig being killed in the battle.[141]
Harold would have been celebrating his victory at Stamford bridge on the night of 26/27 September 1066, while William of Normandys invasion fleet set sail for England on the morning of 27th September 1066.[144] Harold marched his army back down to the south coast where he met Williams army, at a place now called Battle just outside Hastings.[145]Harold was killed when he fought and lost the Battle of Hastings on 14thOctober 1066.[146]
The Battle of Hastings virtually destroyed the Godwin dynasty, Harold and his brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were dead on the battlefield, as was their uncle Ælfwig, Abbot of Newminster.[147] Tostig had been killed at Stamford Bridge. Wulfnoth was a hostage of William the Conqueror. [147]The Godwin women who remained were either dead or childless.[147]
William marched on London, the city leaders surrended the kingdom to him and he was crowned at Westminster Abbey, Edward the Confessors new church, on Christmas day 1066.[148] It took William a further ten years to consolidate his kingdom, any opposition was suppressed ruthlessly, and in a particularly brutal incident known as the 'Harrying of the North', William issued orders to lay waste the north and burn all the cattle, crops and farming equipment and to poison the earth.[149] According to Orderic Vitalis the Anglo-Norman chronicler over one hundred thousand people died of starvation.[150]Figures based on the returns for the Domesday Book estimate that the overall population of England in 1086 was about 2.25 million, so the figure of one hundred thousand deaths, due to starvation, would have been a huge proportion of the population.[151]
By the time of Williams death in 1087 those who had been Englands Anglo Saxon rulers were dead, exiled or had joined the ranks of the peasantry.[152] It was estimated that only about 8 per cent of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control.[148] And nearly all the Anglo-Saxon cathedrals and abbeys of any note had been demolished and replaced with Norman style architecture by 1200AD.[153]
s:The Ruin of Britain. (1848). Translation based on Habington & J. A. Giles s:Ecclesiastical History of the English People..Translation based on L.C. Jane (1903); A. M. Sellar (1907). s:History of the Britons..Translation based on Rev. W. Gunn & J. A. Giles (1848) s:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Commissioned in the reign of Alfred the Great
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Search
