From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Homosexuality is
romantic or sexual attraction or
behavior among members of the same
sex. As a
sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions primarily to" people of the same sex; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a
community of others who share them."
[1][2][3]
Homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation, along with
bisexuality and
heterosexuality, within the
heterosexual-homosexual continuum. Currently the most common adjectives in use are
lesbian for women and
gay for men, though
gay can to refer to either men or women. The number of people who identify as gay or lesbian — and the proportion of people who have
same-sex sexual experiences — are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons.
[4] In the modern West, major studies indicate a prevalence of 2% to 13% of the population.
[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] A 2006 study suggested that 20% of the population anonymously reported some homosexual feelings, although relatively few participants in the study identified themselves as homosexual.
[16] Homosexuality is also widely encountered in the
animal kingdom.
[17][18]Homosexual relationships and acts have been admired as well as condemned throughout recorded history, depending on the form they took and the culture in which they occurred.
.^ Socialized, heavily regulated, or single-payer: A health care system is as good as the people running it .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ People Like That All End Up Dead, Right?- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Socialized, heavily regulated, or single-payer: A health care system is as good as the people running it .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[20] The current literature and most scholars in the field state that one’s sexual orientation is not a choice; that is, individuals do not choose to be homosexual or heterosexual. There is, moreover, no scientific evidence that parenting, sexual abuse, other adverse life events, or early childhood experiences influence sexual orientation.
[21][22] Historically, efforts to change sexual orientation were fruitless or damaging, and because the professional consensus is that homosexuality is an expression of normal human variation, then the possibility and need for change is seen as unwarranted. None have sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and most have policy statements, directed at professionals and the public, advising caution in relation to treatments claiming to change sexual orientation.
Etymology and usage
The word
homosexual is a
Greek and
Latin hybrid with the first element derived from Greek
homos, 'same' (not related to the Latin
homo, 'man', such as in
Homo sapiens), thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including lesbianism.
[23] Gay generally refers to male homosexuality, but may be used in a broader sense to refer to all
LGBT people. In the context of sexuality,
lesbian refers only to female homosexuality. The word "lesbian" is derived from the name of the Greek island
Lesbos, where the poet
Sappho wrote largely about her emotional relationships with young women.
[24][25]The adjective
homosexual describes behavior, relationships, people, orientation, etc. The adjectival form literally means "same sex", being a
hybrid formed from Greek
homo- (a form of
homos "same"), and "sexual" from
Medieval Latin sexualis (from
Classical Latin sexus). Many modern
style guides in the U.S. recommend against using
homosexual as a noun, instead using
gay man or
lesbian.
[26] Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of
homosexual as it has a negative, clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior (as opposed to romantic feelings) and thus it has a negative
connotation.
[26] Gay and
lesbian are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the
initialism LGBT (sometimes written as GLBT), in which
B and
T refer to
bisexual and
transgender people.
The first known appearance of
homosexual in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist
Karl-Maria Kertbeny, published anonymously,
[27] arguing against a
Prussian anti-sodomy law.
[28][29] In 1879,
Gustav Jager used Kertbeny's terms in his book,
Discovery of the Soul (1880).
[29] In 1886,
Richard von Krafft-Ebing used the terms
homosexual and
heterosexual in his book
Psychopathia Sexualis, probably borrowing them from Jager. Krafft-Ebing's book was so popular among both layman and doctors that the terms "heterosexual" and "homosexual" became the most widely accepted terms for sexual orientation.
[29][30]As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th-century tradition of personality taxonomy.
Although early writers also used the adjective
homosexual to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction, activity, and orientation. The term
homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love,
homophilia. Other terms include
men who have sex with men or
MSM (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity),
homoerotic (referring to works of art),
heteroflexible (referring to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities), and
metrosexual (referring to a non-gay man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion, and design).
Pejorative terms in English include
queer,
faggot,
fairy,
poof, and
homo. Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been
reclaimed as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of
queer studies,
queer theory, and even the popular American television program
Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. The word
homo occurs in many other languages without the pejorative connotations it has in English. As with
ethnic slurs and
racial slurs, however, the misuse of these terms can still be highly offensive; the range of acceptable use depends on the context and speaker. Conversely,
gay, a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in
gay liberation and
gay rights), has come into widespread
pejorative use among young people.
Sexuality and gender identity
Sexual orientation, identity, behavior
| “ |
Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions primarily to men, to women, or to both sexes. It also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them. Although sexual orientation ranges along a continuum from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual, it is usually discussed in terms of three categories: heterosexual (having sexual and romantic attraction primarily or exclusively to members of the other sex), homosexual (having sexual and romantic attraction primarily or exclusively to members of one’s own sex), and bisexual (having a significant degree of sexual and romantic attraction to both men and women). Sexual orientation is distinct from other components of sex and sexuality, including biological sex (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being male or female), gender identity (the psychological sense of being male or female), and social gender role (adherence to cultural norms defining feminine and masculine behavior).
Sexual orientation is commonly discussed as a characteristic of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is always defined in relational terms and necessarily involves relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts and romantic attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according to the biological sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each other. Indeed, it is by acting – or desiring to act – with another person that individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality. This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing another person. Thus, sexual orientation is integrally linked to the intimate personal relationships that human beings form with others to meet their deeply felt needs for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to sexual behavior, these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment.
Consequently, sexual orientation is not merely a personal characteristic that can be defined in isolation. Rather, one’s sexual orientation defines the universe of persons with whom one is likely to find the satisfying and fulfilling relationships that, for many individuals, comprise an essential component of personal identity. [3] |
” |
Sexual identity development: "coming-out process"
Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called "coming out" at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues.
.^ I have to look out for my best interest and for many others out there that can't defend themselves and their sexual orientation.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This is a moral issue; a moral issue to dispel misinformation that sexual orientation is some sort of "choice" and a moral issue to not expect people to change what they are to please others.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Gay people don't want to realize that God can change your sexual orientation because they don't want to admit that it is a sin to endulge in homosexual acts.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person.
[31] In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age.
.^ This is a moral issue; a moral issue to dispel misinformation that sexual orientation is some sort of "choice" and a moral issue to not expect people to change what they are to please others.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Furthermore, your thoughts and words affecting them is NOT their problem, it's yours for not having the human decency to accept other people as humans because they do not live the same lifestyle as you.
^ October 29th, 2007 9:30 am ET Many in the gay community always preach about intolerance and how they want to be accepted by society.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
Sometimes their own families are not even informed.
According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality."
[32]Outing is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.
[33] Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,
[34] while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.
[35]
Explanations for homosexuality
The current literature and most scholars in the field agree that an individual's sexual orientation is not a matter of choice; that is, individuals do not choose to be homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual. There is, moreover, no scientific evidence that early childhood experiences, parenting, troubled family dynamics, sexual abuse, "faulty psychological development", or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation, as was formerly believed;
[21][22] those assumptions are now understood to have been based on misinformation and prejudice.
[19] Nevertheless, the reasons why some people are homosexual remain poorly understood;
[19][21] experts generally believe, however, that sexual orientation is not determined by a single factor, but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences.
[21][36] Biological explanations are becoming more favoured, based chiefly on genetics and prenatal exposure to hormones.
[21]Sexual orientation change efforts
In 2009 the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation conducted a systematic review of the peer-reviewed journal literature on sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE) and concluded:
Efforts to change sexual orientation are unlikely to be successful and involve some risk of harm, contrary to the claims of SOCE practitioners and advocates. Even though the research and clinical literature demonstrate that same-sex sexual and romantic attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality, regardless of sexual orientation identity, the task force concluded that the population that undergoes SOCE tends to have strongly conservative religious views that lead them to seek to change their sexual orientation. Thus, the appropriate application of affirmative therapeutic interventions for those who seek SOCE involves therapist acceptance, support, and understanding of clients and the facilitation of clients’ active coping, social support, and identity exploration and development, without imposing a specific sexual orientation identity outcome.
[37]
No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and virtually all of them have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers in the USA
[38], the Royal College of Psychiatrists
[39], and the
Australian Psychological Society
[40].
The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists expressed concerns that the positions espoused by
NARTH are not supported by the science and create an environment in which prejudice and discrimination can flourish.
[39][41]Gender identity
The earliest writers on a homosexual orientation usually understood it to be intrinsically linked to the subject's own sex. For example, it was thought that a typical female-bodied person who is attracted to female-bodied persons would have masculine attributes, and vice versa.
[42] This understanding was shared by most of the significant theorists of homosexuality from the mid 19th to early 20th centuries, such as
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs,
Richard von Krafft-Ebing,
Magnus Hirschfeld,
Havelock Ellis,
Carl Jung and
Sigmund Freud, as well as many gender variant homosexual people themselves.
.^ Youth Gender Identity, Race and Class in the New York Times and In the New Year .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Transgender and
cisgender people may be attracted to men, women or both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite different in these two populations (see
sexual orientation of transwomen). An individual homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or
androgynous, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see the "gender-conforming heterosexual" and the "gender-nonconforming homosexual" as negative
stereotypes. However, studies by
J. Michael Bailey and K.J. Zucker have found that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender-nonconforming during their childhood years.
[43] Richard C. Friedman, in
Male Homosexuality published in 1990,
[44] writing from a
psychoanalytic perspective, argues that sexual desire begins later than the writings of
Sigmund Freud indicate, not in infancy but between the ages of 5 and 10 and is not focused on a parent figure but on peers. As a consequence, he reasons, homosexual men are not abnormal, never having been sexually attracted to their mothers anyway.
[45]Social construct
Because a homosexual orientation is complex and multi-dimensional, some academics and researchers, especially in Queer studies, have argued that it is a historical and social construction. In 1976 the historian
Michel Foucault argued that homosexuality as an identity did not exist in the eighteenth century; that people instead spoke of "sodomy", which referred to sexual acts. Sodomy was a crime that was often ignored but sometimes punished severely (see
sodomy law).
The term homosexual is often used in European and American cultures to encompass a person’s entire social identity, which includes self and personality. In Western cultures some people speak meaningfully of gay, lesbian, and bisexual identities and communities. In other cultures, homosexuality and heterosexual labels don’t emphasize an entire social identity or indicate community affiliation based on sexual orientation.
[46] Some scholars, such as David Green, state that homosexuality is a modern Western social construct, and as such cannot be used in the context of non-Western male-male sexuality, nor in the pre-modern West.
[47]Same-sex romance and relationships
People with a homosexual orientation can express their sexuality in a variety of ways, and may or may not express it in their
behaviors.
[48] Some have sexual relationships predominately with people of their own
gender identity, another gender,
bisexual relationships or they can be
celibate.
[48] Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want, and succeed in having, committed and durable relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and 80% of lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship.
[49] Survey data also indicates that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived together ten or more years.
[50] Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of satisfaction and commitment in romantic relationships,
[51][52] that age and gender are more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and commitment to a romantic relationship,
[52] and that people who are heterosexual or homosexual share comparable expectations and ideals with regard to romantic relationships.
[53]Demographics
Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population is of value in informing public policy.
[54] .^ GLB and T are all at risk to be discharged under Don't Ask, Don't Tell .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[54] Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."
[54]Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality may present difficulties.
[4] The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The class of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the class of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the class of people who self-identify as gay/lesbian/bisexual.
[54]In 1948 and 1953,
Alfred Kinsey reported that nearly 46% of the male subjects had "reacted" sexually to persons of both sexes in the course of their adult lives, and 37% had had at least one homosexual experience.
[55] Kinsey's methodology was criticized.
[56][57] A later study tried to eliminate the sample bias, but still reached similar conclusions.
[58]Estimates of the frequency of homosexual activity also vary from one country to another. A 1992 study reported that 6.1% of males in Britain had had a homosexual experience, while in France the number was 4.1%.
[62] According to a 2003
survey, 12% of
Norwegians have had homosexual sex.
[14] In
New Zealand, a 2006 study suggested that 20% of the population anonymously reported some homosexual feelings, few of them identifying as homosexual. Percentage of persons identifying homosexual was 2–3%.
[16] According to a 2008 poll, while only 6% of Britons define their sexual orientation as homosexual or bisexual, more than twice that number (13%) of Britons have had some form of sexual contact with someone of the same sex.
[15]Psychology
Psychology was one of the first disciplines to study a homosexual orientation as a discrete phenomenon. The first attempts to classify homosexuality as a disease were made by the fledgling European
sexologist movement in the late 19th century. In 1886 noted sexologist
Richard von Krafft-Ebing listed homosexuality along with 200 other case studies of deviant sexual practices in his definitive work,
Psychopathia Sexualis. Krafft-Ebing proposed that homosexuality was caused by either "congenital [during birth] inversion" or an "acquired inversion". In the last two decades of the 19th century, a different view began to predominate in
medical and
psychiatric circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable sexual orientation. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, pathological models of homosexuality were standard.
| “ |
.^ Protesters call for Reform of Gender Disorders at American Psychiatric Association Convention .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Almost immediately, however, that classification began to be subjected to critical scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That study and subsequent research consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as a disorder or abnormality, rather than a normal and healthy sexual orientation. .^ Socialized, heavily regulated, or single-payer: A health care system is as good as the people running it .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In recognition of the scientific evidence, [64] the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM in 1973, stating that “homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities.” After thoroughly reviewing the scientific data, the American Psychological Association adopted the same position in 1975, and urged all mental health professionals “to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientations.” The National Association of Social Workers has adopted a similar policy. Thus, mental health professionals and researchers have long recognized that being homosexual poses no inherent obstacle to leading a happy, healthy, and productive life, and that the vast majority of gay and lesbian people function well in the full array of social institutions and interpersonal relationships. [3] |
” |
The research and clinical literature demonstrate that same-sex sexual and romantic attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality. The longstanding consensus of the behavioral and social sciences and the health and mental health professions is that homosexuality per se is a normal and positive variation of human sexual orientation.
[65] .^ May 17, 2007 10:38 AM .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ May 17, 2009 10:00 AM .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ How a transgender prisoner gets tougher punishment because of her gender identity .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The
Chinese Society of Psychiatry removed homosexuality from its
Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders in 2001 after five years of study by the association.
[68] According to the
Royal College of Psychiatrists "This unfortunate history demonstrates how marginalisation of a group of people who have a particular personality feature (in this case homosexuality) can lead to harmful medical practice and a basis for discrimination in society.
[22] There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. However, the experiences of discrimination in society and possible rejection by friends, families and others, such as employers, means that some LGB people experience a greater than expected prevalence of mental health and substance misuse problems. Although there have been claims by conservative political groups in the USA that this higher prevalence of mental health difficulties is confirmation that homosexuality is itself a mental disorder, there is no evidence whatever to substantiate such a claim."
[69]Most lesbian, gay, and bisexual people who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as heterosexual people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Whatever the issue, there is a high risk for anti-gay bias in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients.
[70] Psychological research in this area has been relevant to counteracting prejudicial ("
homophobic") attitudes and actions, and to the
LGBT rights movement generally.
[71]The appropriate application of affirmative psychotherapy is based on the following scientific facts
[65]:
- Same-sex sexual attractions, behavior, and orientations per se are normal and positive variants of human sexuality; in other words, they are not indicators of mental or developmental disorders.
- Homosexuality and bisexuality are stigmatized, and this stigma can have a variety of negative consequences (e.g., minority stress) throughout the life span (D’Augelli & Patterson, 1995; DiPlacido, 1998; Herek & Garnets, 2007; Meyer, 1995, 2003).
- Same-sex sexual attractions and behavior can occur in the context of a variety of sexual orientations and sexual orientation identities (Diamond, 2006; Hoburg et al., 2004; Rust, 1996; Savin-Williams, 2005).
- Gay men, lesbians, and bisexual individuals can live satisfying lives as well as form stable, committed relationships and families that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects (APA, 2005c; Kurdek, 2001, 2003, 2004; Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007).
- There are no empirical studies or peer-reviewed research that support theories attributing same-sex sexual orientation to family dysfunction or trauma (Bell et al., 1981; Bene, 1965; Freund & Blanchard, 1983; Freund & Pinkava, 1961; Hooker, 1969; McCord et al., 1962; D. K. Peters & Cantrell, 1991; Siegelman, 1974, 1981; Townes et al., 1976).
Etiology
| “ |
Currently, there is no scientific consensus about the specific factors that cause an individual to become heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual — including possible biological, psychological, or social effects of the parents’ sexual orientation. However, the available evidence indicates that the vast majority of lesbian and gay adults were raised by heterosexual parents and the vast majority of children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually grow up to be heterosexual.[3] |
” |
| “ |
Despite almost a century of psychoanalytic and psychological speculation, there is no substantive evidence to support the suggestion that the nature of parenting or early childhood experiences play any role in the formation of a person’s fundamental heterosexual or homosexual orientation. It would appear that sexual orientation is biological in nature, determined by a complex interplay of genetic factors and the early uterine environment. Sexual orientation is therefore not a choice.[22] |
” |
| “ |
Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. In recent decades, biologically based theories have been favored by experts. Although there continues to be controversy and uncertainty as to the genesis of the variety of human sexual orientations, there is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual abuse, or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation. Current knowledge suggests that sexual orientation is usually established during early childhood.[21][22] |
” |
The American Psychological Association has stated that "there are probably many reasons for a person's sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people". It stated that, for most people, sexual orientation is determined at an early age.
[79] Research into how sexual orientation may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about
genetic profiling and
prenatal testing.
[80]Professor Michael King states: "The conclusion reached by scientists who have investigated the origins and stability of sexual orientation is that it is a human characteristic that is formed early in life, and is resistant to change. Scientific evidence on the origins of homosexuality is considered relevant to theological and social debate because it undermines suggestions that sexual orientation is a choice."
[81]Innate bisexuality (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by
Sigmund Freud, based on work by his associate
Wilhelm Fliess, that expounds that all humans are born bisexual but through psychological development – which includes both external and internal factors – become monosexual, while the bisexuality remains in a
latent state.
The authors of a 2008 study stated that "there is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, so it is not known how homosexuality, which tends to lower
reproductive success, is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency". They hypothesized that "while genes predisposing to homosexuality reduce homosexuals' reproductive success, they may confer some advantage in heterosexuals who carry them". Their results suggested that "genes predisposing to homosexuality may confer a mating advantage in heterosexuals, which could help explain the evolution and maintenance of homosexuality in the population".
[82] A 2009 study also suggested a significant increase in fecundity in the females related to the homosexual people from the maternal line (but not in those related from the paternal one).
[83] A 2010 study stated: "The fetal brain develops during the intrauterine period in the male direction through a direct action of testosterone on the developing nerve cells, or in the female direction through the absence of this hormone surge. In this way, our gender identity (the conviction of belonging to the male or female gender) and sexual orientation are programmed or organized into our brain structures when we are still in the womb. There is no indication that social environment after birth has an effect on gender identity or sexual orientation."
[84]Parenting
LGBT parenting is when
lesbian,
gay,
bisexual, and
transgender (
LGBT) people are
parents to one or more children, either as biological or non-biological parents. Gay men face options which include: "foster care, variations of domestic and international adoption, diverse forms of surrogacy (whether "traditional" or gestational), and kinship arrangements, wherein they might coparent with a woman or women with whom they are intimately but not sexually involved."
[85][86][87][88][89] LGBT parents can also include single people who are parenting; to a lesser extent, the term sometimes refers to families with LGBT children.
In the
2000 U.S. Census, 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under eighteen living in their home.
[90] Some children do not know they have an LGB parent; coming out issues vary and some parents may never come out to their children.
[91][92] LGBT parenting in general, and
adoption by LGBT couples may be controversial in some countries. In January 2008, the
European Court of Human Rights ruled that same-sex couples have the right to adopt a child.
[93][94] In the U.S., LGB people can legally adopt in all states except for Florida.
[95]There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. More than 25 years of research have documented that there is no relationship between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment. These data have demonstrated no risk to children as a result of growing up in a family with 1 or more gay parents.
[96] No research supports the widely held conviction that the gender of parents matters for child well-being.
[97] If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would evidence problems regardless of the type of sample. This pattern clearly has not been observed. Given the consistent failures in this research literature to disprove the null hypothesis, the burden of empirical proof is on those who argue that the children of sexual minority parents fare worse than the children of heterosexual parents.
[98]Professor Judith Stacey, of
New York University, stated: “Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the
American Academy of Pediatrics and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights”.
[99] These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics,
[96] the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
[100] the
American Psychiatric Association,
[101] the
American Psychological Association [102], the
American Psychoanalytic Association [103], the
National Association of Social Workers,
[3] the
Child Welfare League of America,
[104] the North American Council on Adoptable Children,
[105] and
Canadian Psychological Association (CPA). CPA is concerned that some persons and institutions are mis-interpreting the findings of psychological research to support their positions, when their positions are more accurately based on other systems of belief or values.
[106]The vast majority of families in the United States today are not the "middle class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children" that has been viewed as the norm. Since the end of the 1980’s, it has been well established that children and adolescents can adjust just as well in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings.
[107]Health
Physical
- Avoid contact with a partner’s menstrual blood and with any visible genital lesions.
-
- Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person’s vagina or anus with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person.
- Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom, plastic wrap) during oral sex.
- Use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any manual sex that might cause bleeding.[108]
- Avoid contact with a partner’s bodily fluids and with any visible genital lesions.
-
- Use condoms for anal and oral sex.
- Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom, plastic wrap) during anal–oral sex.
- Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person and use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any sex that might cause bleeding.[109][110]
Men who have sex with men (MSM) and
women who have sex with women (WSW) refers to people who engage in sexual activity with others of the same sex regardless of how they identify themselves as many choose not to accept
social identities as lesbian, gay and bisexual.
[111][112][113][114][115] These terms are often used in medical literature and
social research to describe such groups for study, without needing to consider the issues of sexual self-identity. The terms are seen as problematic, however, because it "obscures social dimensions of sexuality; undermines the self-labeling of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people; and does not sufficiently describe variations in sexual behavior".
[116] MSM and WSW are sexually active with each other for a variety of reasons with the main ones arguably sexual pleasure, intimacy and bonding. In contrast to its benefits, sexual behavior can be a
disease vector.
Safe sex is a relevant
harm reduction philosophy.
[117] The United States
prohibits men who have sex with men from donating blood "because they are, as a group, at increased risk for
HIV,
hepatitis B and certain other infections that can be transmitted by transfusion."
[118] Many European countries have the same prohibition.
[118]Mental
When it was first described in medical literature, homosexuality was often approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as its root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexual patients centered on their
depression,
substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among people who are
non-heterosexual, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexual people face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health.
[119] Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality lead to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers.
[120] Evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the past few decades is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.
[121]Gay and lesbian youth
Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers".
[122] Further, LGB youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their
perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) that "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members...may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager."
[123] A 2008 study showed a correlation between the degree of rejecting behavior by parents of LGB adolescents and negative health problems in the teenagers studied:
Higher rates of family rejection were significantly associated with poorer health outcomes. On the basis of odds ratios, lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults who reported higher levels of family rejection during adolescence were 8.4 times more likely to report having attempted suicide, 5.9 times more likely to report high levels of depression, 3.4 times more likely to use illegal drugs, and 3.4 times more likely to report having engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse compared with peers from families that reported no or low levels of family rejection.
[124]
Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults.
[125] The Trevor Helpline, a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the
Academy Award winning short film
Trevor.
History
Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.
In a detailed compilation of
historical and
ethnographic materials of
Preindustrial Cultures, "strong disapproval of homosexuality was reported for 41% of 42 cultures; it was accepted or ignored by 21%, and 12% reported no such concept. Of 70 ethnographies, 59% reported homosexuality absent or rare in frequency and 41% reported it present or not uncommon."
[126].^ First, the Biblical translation of homosexual in this passage was for a word that no one actually knows a meaning for, but is speculated to be a form of male prostitute.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
^ An exploration of the problem older homosexuals have in holding on to their younger lovers, as exemplified by the sexual fantasies of a middle-aged writer and the young men who dominate his life.- Gay & Lesbian Studies: Motion Picture Videos in the Media Resources Center, UC Berkeley 9 February 2010 14:45 UTC www.lib.berkeley.edu [Source type: General]
^ I want to see a bible verse where JESUS CHRIST condemned homosexuality – but no one can show me that.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
John Boswell has countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,
[131] which describe individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.
Africa
Though often ignored or suppressed by European explorers and colonialists, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. Anthropologists
Stephen Murray and
Will Roscoe reported that women in
Lesotho engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" called
motsoalle.[132] E. E. Evans-Pritchard also recorded that male
Azande warriors in the northern
Congo routinely took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in
intercrural sex with their older husbands. The practice had died out by the early 20th century, after Europeans had gained control of African countries, but was recounted to Evans-Pritchard by the elders to whom he spoke.
[133]The first recorded homosexual couple in history is commonly regarded as
Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum, an Egyptian male couple, who lived around the 2400 BCE. The pair are portrayed in a nose-kissing position, the most intimate pose in Egyptian art, surrounded by what appear to be their heirs.
Americas
Dance to the Berdache
Sac and Fox Nation ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796–1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Among
indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization, a common form of same-sex sexuality centered around the figure of the
Two-Spirit individual. Typically this individual was recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path and, if the child accepted the role, raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-Spirit individuals were commonly
shamans and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life was with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex.
Balboa setting his
war dogs upon Indian practitioners of male love in 1513; New York Public Library
The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover sodomy openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the
berdaches (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public
execution, burning and being torn to pieces by dogs.
[136]East Asia
In
East Asia, same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history.
Homosexuality in China, known as the
pleasures of the bitten peach, the cut sleeve, or
the southern custom, has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, not identities (recently some fashionable young Chinese tend to euphemistically use the term "brokeback," 斷背
duanbei to refer to homosexual men, from the success of director
Ang Lee's film
Brokeback Mountain).
[137] The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the classical novel
Dream of the Red Chamber seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexual people during the same period.
Homosexuality in Japan, variously known as
shudo or
nanshoku has been documented for over one thousand years and was an integral part of
Buddhist monastic life and the
samurai tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of
painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships.
Similarly, in
Thailand,
Kathoey, or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While
Kathoey may encompass simple
effeminacy or
transvestism, it most commonly is treated in
Thai culture as a
third gender. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior.
Europe
Roman man penetrating a youth, possibly a slave, middle of the 1st century
AD. Found in Bittir (?), near
Jerusalem
In regard of male homosexuality such documents depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life.
.^ I for one cannot stand seeing two same sex people being afectionate in public, Just as most people cannot stand watching a hetro sexualcouple be affectionate.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So it's not a conflict for a Christian to believe that a homosexual (one who has natural attractions to people of the same sex) was born that way and also that acting on such attractions is a sin.- CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog Archive - Obama supporter: ‘God delivered me from homosexuality’ « - Blogs from CNN.com 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com [Source type: Original source]
The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder.
Plato praised its benefits in his early writings
[138] but in his late works proposed its prohibition.
[139] In the
Symposium (182B-D), Plato equates acceptance of homosexuality with democracy, and its suppression with despotism, saying that homosexuality "is shameful to barbarians because of their despotic governments, just as philosophy and athletics are, since it is apparently not in best interests of such rulers to have great ideas engendered in their subjects, or powerful friendships or physical unions, all of which love is particularly apt to produce".
[131] Aristotle, in the
Politics, dismissed Plato's ideas about abolishing homosexuality (2.4); he explains that barbarians like the Celts accorded it a special honour (2.6.6), while the Cretans used it to regulate the population (2.7.5).
[131]
Youth females are depicted as surrounding Sappho in this painting of
Lafond "Sappho sings for Homer", 1824
Little is known of female homosexuality in antiquity. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos, was included by later Greeks in the canonical list of
nine lyric poets. The adjectives deriving from her name and place of birth (Sapphic and Lesbian) came to be applied to female homosexuality beginning in the 19th century.
[140][141] .^ Know or Love a Gender Variant Kid?- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The narrators of many of her poems speak of infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various females, but descriptions of physical acts
between women are few and subject to debate.
[142][143] There is no evidence that she ran an academy for girls.
Sappho reading to her companions on an Attic vase of c. 435 BC.
In
Ancient Rome the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive role in sex. All the emperors with the exception of
Claudius took male lovers. The Hellenophile emperor
Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with
Antinous, but the Christian emperor
Theodosius I decreed a law on August 6, 390, condemning passive males to be burned at the stake.
Justinian, towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on
brothels of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of
Anastasius I in 518.
During the
Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern
Italy—
Florence and
Venice in particular—were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.
[144][145] But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the
Officers of the Night court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk
Girolamo Savonarola. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as
Rembrandt, who in his
Rape of Ganymede no longer depicted
Ganymede as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey.
The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as
King James I and the
Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede" (
Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd, 1691).
Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson was published in 1723 in England and was presumed by some modern scholars to be a novel. The 1749 edition of
John Cleland's popular novel
Fanny Hill includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English,
Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified, written by
Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."
[146] Around 1785
Jeremy Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.
[147] Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835.
Between 1864 and 1880
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled
Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in
Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws.
Sexual Inversion by
Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement.
[148] Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of
Magnus Hirschfeld's
Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against
anti-sodomy laws in Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as
Edward Carpenter and
John Addington Symonds. Beginning in 1894 with
Homogenic Love, Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book
My Days and Dreams. In 1900,
Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time,
Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur. His aim was to broaden the public perspective of homosexuality beyond its being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. In a backlash to this, the
Third Reich specifically
targeted LGBT people in the Holocaust.
Middle East, South and Central Asia
Among many
Middle Eastern Muslim cultures egalitarian or age-structured homosexual practices were, and remain, widespread and thinly veiled. The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were—and are—either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modeled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare. Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran,
Mauritania, northern
Nigeria,
Sudan, and
Yemen.
[149]A tradition of art and literature sprang up constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality. Muslim—often
Sufi—poets in medieval
Arab lands and in
Persia wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who served them in the taverns. In many areas the practice survived into modern times, as documented by
Richard Francis Burton,
André Gide, and others.
In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early
Safavid era (1501–1723), male houses of
prostitution (
amrad khane) were legally recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, such as
Sa’di (d. 1291),
Hafez (d. 1389), and
Jami (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the
köçeks and the
bacchás, and
Sufi spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god.
Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Iranian President
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his
2007 speech at Columbia University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people do live in Iran, but most keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.
[150]The
Laws of Manu, the foundational work of Hindu law, mentions a "third sex", members of which may engage in nontraditional gender expression and homosexual activities.
[151]South Pacific
In many societies of
Melanesia, especially in
Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The
Etoro and
Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of
Christianity by
European missionaries.
[152]Law, politics, society and sociology
Legality
No information
|
Homosexuality legal Same-sex marriage Other type of partnership (or unregistered cohabitation) Foreign same-sex marriages recognized No recognition of same-sex couples
|
Homosexuality illegal Minimal penalty Large penalty Life in prison Death penalty
|
Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local
age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including
marriage. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships; that is, in some jurisdictions homosexual activity is illegal. Offenders can face the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as
Iran and parts of
Nigeria. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement. See
Violence against LGBT people.
Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the
Western world, such as
Poland in 1932,
Denmark in 1933,
Sweden in 1944, and the
United Kingdom in 1967, it was not until the mid-1970s that the
gay community first began to achieve limited
civil rights in some
developed countries. On July 2, 2009, homosexuality was decriminalized in India by a High Court ruling.
[153] .^ Protesters call for Reform of Gender Disorders at American Psychiatric Association Convention .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In 1977,
Quebec became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit
discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. During the 1980s and 1990s, most
developed countries enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbian and gay people in employment, housing, and services. On the other hand, many countries today in the Middle East and Africa, as well as several countries in Asia, the Caribbean and the South Pacific, outlaw homosexuality. In six countries, homosexual behavior is punishable by
life imprisonment; in ten others, it carries the
death penalty.
[154]Sexual orientation and the law
- Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. In the United States there is "very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong."[155] Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. President Bill Clinton's Executive Order 13087 (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce,[156] and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the due process clause of the U.S. Constitution.[157] Private sector workers may have a Title VII action under a quid pro quo sexual harassment theory,[158] a "hostile work environment" theory,[159] a sexual stereotyping theory,[160] or others.[155]
- Housing discrimination refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. .^ Court rules that Title VII prohibits gender identity discrimination .
- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Gender Autonomy, Transgender Identity and Substantive Due Process: Finding a Rational Basis for Lawrence v.- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Call for Volunteer Researchers: Gender Identity Non-Discrimination Laws and Public Lavatory Climate .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[161]
.^ Youth Gender Identity, Race and Class in the New York Times and In the New Year .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In the United States, 45 states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are AZ, GA, IN, SC, and WY). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity.[162] In October 2009, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, which "...gives the Justice Department the power to investigate and prosecute bias-motivated violence where the perpetrator has selected the victim because of the person's actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability," was signed into law and makes hate crime based on sexual orientation, amongst other offenses, a federal crime in the United States.[163]
Political activism
Since the 1960s, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called
gay culture. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the
gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents
heterophobia and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people.
With the outbreak of
AIDS in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs.
Gay Men's Health Crisis, Project Inform, and
ACT UP are some notable American examples of the LGBT community's response to the AIDS crisis.
The bewildering death toll wrought by the
AIDS epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the gay rights movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include
An Early Frost (1985),
Longtime Companion (1990),
And the Band Played On (1993),
Philadelphia (1993), and
Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989), the last referring to the
NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, last displayed in its entirety on
the Mall in
Washington, D.C., in 1996.
LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Some
social conservatives believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermine the traditional family
[164] and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.
[165][166] There is concern that gay rights may conflict with individuals' freedom of speech,
[167][168][169][170][171] religious freedoms in the workplace,
[172][173] the ability to run churches,
[174] charitable organizations
[175][176] and other religious organizations
[177] in accordance with one's religious views, and that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views don't align with those of the government.
[178][179][180][181]Critics charge that political correctness has led to the association of sex between males and HIV being downplayed.
[182][183]Relationships
.^ Protesters call for Reform of Gender Disorders at American Psychiatric Association Convention .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The institution of marriage offers social, psychological, and health benefits that are denied to same-sex couples. By denying same-sex couples the right to marry, the state reinforces and perpetuates the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. Homosexuality remains stigmatized, and this stigma has negative consequences. California’s prohibition on marriage for same-sex couples reflects and reinforces this stigma". They concluded: "There is no scientific basis for distinguishing between same-sex couples and heterosexual couples with respect to the legal rights, obligations, benefits, and burdens conferred by civil marriage."
[3]
Military service
Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian
military personnel vary widely around the world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few countries continue to ban homosexual personnel outright.
Most Western military forces have removed policies excluding sexual minority members. Of the 26 countries that participate militarily in
NATO, more than 20 permit openly gay, lesbian and bisexual people to serve. Of the permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council, two (
United Kingdom and
France) do so.
.^ GLB and T are all at risk to be discharged under Don't Ask, Don't Tell .- Transgender & Intersex | The Bilerico Project 14 January 2010 9:41 UTC www.bilerico.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Israel is the only country in the Middle East region that allows openly LGB people to serve in the military.
While the question of homosexuality in the military has been highly politicized in the United States, it is not necessarily so in many countries. Generally speaking, sexuality in these cultures is considered a more personal aspect of one's identity than it is in the United States.
According to American Psychological Association empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention.
[184] Sexual orientation is irrelevant to task cohesion, the only type of cohesion that critically predicts the team’s military readiness and success.
[185]Religion
Though the relationship between
homosexuality and religion can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different
religions and
sects, and regarding different forms of homosexuality and bisexuality, current authoritative bodies and doctrines of the world's largest religions generally view homosexuality negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality. Some teach that homosexual orientation itself is sinful,
[186] while others assert that only the sexual act is a sin. Some claim that homosexuality can be overcome through religious faith and practice. On the other hand, voices exist within many of these religions that view homosexuality more positively, and liberal
religious denominations may bless
same-sex marriages. Some view same-sex love and sexuality as sacred, and a
mythology of same-sex love can be found around the world. Regardless of their position on homosexuality, many people of faith look to both
sacred texts and
tradition for guidance on this issue. However, the authority of various traditions or scriptural passages and the correctness of
translations and interpretations are hotly disputed.
Heterosexism and homophobia
In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. Like members of many other minority groups that are the objects of prejudice, they are also subject to
stereotyping, which further adds to marginalization. The prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping are all likely tied to forms of homophobia and heterosexism, which is negative
attitudes,
bias, and
discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships. Heterosexism can include the presumption that everyone is
heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the
norm and therefore superior.
Homophobia is a fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexual people. It manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.
[187] Similar is
lesbophobia (specifically targeting lesbians) and
biphobia (against bisexual people). When such attitudes manifest as crimes they are often called
hate crimes and
gay bashing.
Negative stereotypes characterize LGB people as less romantically stable, more promiscuous and more likely to abuse children, but there is no scientific basic to such assertions. Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects.
[3] Sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse children.
[107][188] Claims that there is scientific evidence to support an association between being gay and being a pedophile are based on misuses of those terms and misrepresentation of the actual evidence.
[189][190][191]Violence against gay and lesbian people
In the United States, the
FBI reported that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. Sixty-one percent of these attacks were against gay men.
[192] The 1998 murder of
Matthew Shepard, a gay student, is one of the most notorious incidents in the U.S.
Homosexual behavior in animals
Homosexual behavior in animals refers to the documented evidence of homosexual,
bisexual and transgender behavior in non-human animals. Such behaviors include
sex,
courtship,
affection,
pair bonding, and
parenting. Homosexual and bisexual behavior are widespread in the
animal kingdom: a 1999 review by researcher
Bruce Bagemihl shows that homosexual behavior has been observed in close to 1500 species, ranging from
primates to
gut worms, and is well documented for 500 of them.
[17][18] Animal sexual behavior takes many different forms, even within the same
species. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.
[194] According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity -- including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex -- than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."
[195]
See also
References
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- ^ "Bishop loses gay employment case". BBC News. July 18, 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6904057.stm.
- ^ Beckford, Martin (June 5, 2008). "Catholic adoption service stops over gay rights". Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2080669/Catholic-adoption-service-stops-over-gay-rights.html.
- ^ LeBlanc, Steve (March 10, 2006). "Catholic Charities to halt adoptions over issue involving gays". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/03/11/catholic_charities_stuns_state_ends_adoptions/.
- ^ Mercer, Greg (April 24, 2008). "Christian Horizons rebuked: Employer ordered to compensate fired gay worker, abolish code of conduct". The Record. http://news.therecord.com/News/CanadaWorld/article/341201. Retrieved 2009-08-21.
- ^ Gallagher, Maggie (May 15, 2006). "Banned in Boston:The coming conflict between same-sex marriage and religious liberty". 011. http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/191kgwgh.asp.
- ^ Capuzzo, Jill (August 14, 2007). "Church Group Complains of Civil Union Pressure". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/14/nyregion/14civil.html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
- ^ Capuzzo, Jill. "Group Loses Tax Break Over Gay Union Issue". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/18/nyregion/18grove.html.
- ^ Moore, Carrie (May 15, 2008). "LDS Church expresses disappointment in California gay marriage decision". Deseret News. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,700226242,00.html. Retrieved 2009-08-21.
- ^ Chin, James (March 12, 2007). "The risks in hiding the HIV/AIDS truth". 9. Business Day. http://www.netassets.co.za/medical/medical.asp?websiteContentItemID=67274.
- ^ "The people punish Mr Blair". Daily Mail (UK). May 6, 2005. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-347665/The-people-punish-Mr-Blair.html.
- ^ American Psychological Association Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 2004. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved November 18, 2004
- ^ American Psychological Association: [Report of the APA Joint Divisional Task Force on Sexual Orientation & Military Service]
- ^ "Charge #1 and specifications preferred by the Presbytery of Southern California against The Rev. C. Lee Irons" (PDF). Presbytery of Southern California of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. http://www.upper-register.com/irons_trial/charges.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "claiming that homosexuality is an unchosen "condition," rather than a sin of the heart, [...] contradicts the teaching of Scripture that both the desire and the act are sin."
- ^ The Riddle Homophobia Scale from Allies Committee website, Department of Student Life, Texas A&M University
- ^ American Psychological Association: Lesbian & Gay Parenting
- ^ Dr. James Cantor
- ^ Buchanan, Wyatt (October 7, 2006). "Foley incident stirs up a stereotype about gay men". http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/07/MNG9HLKTVH1.DTL. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
- ^ Gregory M. Herek, Ph.D.: Facts About Homosexuality and Child Molestation
- ^ "Crime in the United States 2004: Hate Crime", FBI, http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html, retrieved 2007-05-04
- ^ Smith, Dinitia (February 7, 2004). "Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0C1EF83A5F0C748CDDAB0894DC404482. Retrieved 2007-09-10.
- ^ Gordon, Dr Dennis (10 April 2007). "‘Catalogue of Life’ reaches one million species". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20070713004634/http://www.niwascience.co.nz/pubs/mr/archive/2007-04-10-3. Retrieved 2007-09-10.
- ^ Gay Lib for the Animals: A New Look At Homosexuality in Nature - 2/1/1999 - Publishers Weekly
Bibliography
Books
- Adam, Barry (1987). The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement, G. K. Hall & Co. ISBN 0805797149
- Boswell, John (1980), Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780226067117, http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/231.ctl
- Dover, Kenneth J., Greek Homosexuality, , Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1979, ISBN 0-674-36261-6 (hardcover), ISBN 0-674-36270-5 (paperback)
- d'Emilio, John Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970, University of Chicago Press 1983, ISBN 0226142655
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- Roth, Norman. The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry. IN: Lazar & Lacy. Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages, George Mason University Press 1989, ISBN 0913969257
- 1990s
- Bagemihl, Bruce (1999), Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0312192398
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- Brown, Lester B. (1997), Lester B. Brown, ed., Two spirit people: American Indian, lesbian women and gay men, Routledge, ISBN 9780789000033, http://books.google.com/books?id=AwnQBETJsvEC
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- 2000s
- Bernstein, Elizabeth; Schaffner, Laurie (2005), Regulating sex: the politics of intimacy and identity, Routledge, ISBN 9780415948692, http://books.google.com/books?id=YQzW5I2RGNcC
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- Vanita, Ruth (2002), Queering India: same-sex love and eroticism in Indian culture and society, Routledge, ISBN 9780415929509, http://books.google.com/books?id=I9rrucxQbmEC
Journal articles
- Bagley, Christopher; Tremblay, Pierre (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of Homosexuality (no. 2: [New York, Haworth Press]) 36, ISSN 00918369, OCLC 91129391
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- Iemmola, Francesca; Ciani, Andrea Camperio (2009), "New Evidence of Genetic Factors Influencing Sexual Orientation in Men: Female Fecundity Increase in the Maternal Line" (Article), Archives of Sexual Behavior (no. 3: Springer) 38: 393–399, doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9381-6, ISSN 00040002, OCLC 360232526, http://www.springerlink.com/content/l6104277w82137x4
- LeVay, Simon (1991), "A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men.", Science (New York, N.Y.) 253 (5023): 1034–7, ISSN 00368075, OCLC 121655996, http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/253/5023/1034
- McConaghy, N; Hadzi-Pavlovic, D; Stevens, C; Manicavasagar, V (2006), "Fraternal Birth Order and Ratio of Heterosexual/Homosexual Feelings in Women and Men", Journal of Homosexuality (no. 4) 51: 161–174, doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.002, ISSN 00918369, OCLC 202629885, http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513808000688
Online articles
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