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This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. For the physics of atomic hydrogen, see Hydrogen atom. For other meanings, see Hydrogen (disambiguation).

- ← hydrogen → helium - ↑ H ↓ Li 1H Periodic table
Appearance
colorless gas
General properties
Name, symbol, number	hydrogen, H, 1
Pronunciation	/ˈhaɪdrɵdʒɨn/,[1] HYE-dro-jin
Element category	nonmetal
Group, period, block	1, 1, s
Standard atomic weight	1.00794(7) g·mol−1
Electron configuration	1s1
Electrons per shell	1 (Image)
Physical properties
Color	colorless
Phase	gas
Density	(0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 0.08988 g/L
Melting point	14.01 K, -259.14 °C, -434.45 °F
Boiling point	20.28 K, -252.87 °C, -423.17 °F
Triple point	13.8033 K (-259°C), 7.042 kPa
Critical point	32.97 K, 1.293 MPa
Heat of fusion	(H2) 0.117 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	(H2) 0.904 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity	(25 °C) (H2) 28.836 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T/K 15 20
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	1, -1 (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	2.20 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies	1st: 1312.0 kJ·mol−1
Covalent radius	31±5 pm
Van der Waals radius	120 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	hexagonal
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic[2]
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 0.1805 W·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound	(gas, 27 °C) 1310 m/s
CAS registry number	1333-74-0
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 1H 99.985% 1H is stable with 0 neutrons 2H 0.015% 2H is stable with 1 neutron 3H trace 12.32 y β− 0.01861 3He
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.Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H.^ Chemical symbol for hydrogen.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ [A84] (b) The second lightest (atomic number two) and second most common element in the universe.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

With an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass.^[3] Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. .Naturally occurring elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth.^ It occurs principally in the form of water and petroleum products; traces of molecular hydrogen are found in some natural gases and in the upper atmosphere.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

.The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium (name rarely used, symbol H) with a single proton and no neutrons.^ Hydrogen-1 (one proton and no neutrons) is the most common isotope; hydrogen-2 (one proton and one neutron), or deuterium, is rarer; and hydrogen-3 (one proton and two neutrons), or tritium, is radioactive.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ The proton and neutron are the most familiar baryons.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ It has two stable isotopes, helium-3 (two protons and one neutron) and helium-4 (two protons and two neutrons).

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

In ionic compounds it can take a negative charge (an anion known as a hydride and written as H⁻), or as a positively-charged species H⁺. The latter cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in ionic compounds always occur as more complex species. .Hydrogen forms compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds.^ Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe, the primary process on the Sun being nuclear fusion of hydrogen to give helium.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ It occurs principally in the form of water and petroleum products; traces of molecular hydrogen are found in some natural gases and in the upper atmosphere.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

^ Element which, after hydrogen, is the second lightest and second most abundant in the Universe.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between soluble molecules. .As the simplest atom known, the hydrogen atom has been of theoretical use.^ Hydrogen occupies a unique position among the elements as hydrogen atoms are the simplest of all atoms.

• Astronomical Glossary 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu [Source type: Academic]

.For example, as the only neutral atom with an analytic solution to the Schrödinger equation, the study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics.^ The oxygen atoms will bond to the metal forming a metal oxide, freeing the hydrogen.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Hydrogen gas (now known to be H₂) was first artificially produced in the early 16th century, via the mixing of metals with strong acids.^ (OTCBB : HYDP ) has licensed and developed a patented technology for producing hydrogen gas in a process called Hydrogen Now TM .

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Hydrogen Now involves a chemical reaction between water, aluminum, and an environmentally friendly catalyst to cleanly and efficiently produce hydrogen on-site and on-demand.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The first hydrogen station was opened at Forus in Stavanger in 2006, the second in Porsgrunn in 2007, and now the two new stations are open in Oslo and Lier.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.In 1766-81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance, and that it produces water when burned, a property which later gave it its name, which in Greek means "water-former". At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H₂.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The result is hydrogen suspension and the only ingredient left is pressure and heat to release its full energy from the combustion.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^ (OTCBB : HYDP ) has licensed and developed a patented technology for producing hydrogen gas in a process called Hydrogen Now TM .

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Industrial production is mainly from the steam reforming of natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive hydrogen production methods like the electrolysis of water ^[4].^ The chemical plants produce more than 1000 kg/hr of hydrogen resulting form the production of sodium chlorate and clor-alkali by electrolysis of salt water.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water requires even more energy and using the current technology of making it from natural gas would require too much of this resource to be used to produce the large quantities of hydrogen needed to run our cars using fuel cells.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This is dramatically less than alternative renewable sources, such as wind and solar, and very competitive with mature, capital intensive hydrogen production methods such as natural gas reformation, coal gasification or electrolysis.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Most hydrogen is employed near its production site, with the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market.^ A hydrogen production process has been developed using solar refined zinc.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This is a national transition strategy to stimulate the production and use of hydrogen fuel in the near term.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ In order to increase the use of hydrogen fuel it must be priced competitively against gasoline and diesel.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Hydrogen is important in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals^{[5 ]}, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks^[6].^ Combine with lightweight composite materials, Riverside said the vehicle maximizes efficiency, cutting the need for a large hydrogen storage tank.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Hydrogen has increasingly received attention as an energy-storage medium which burns in a less-polluting way than do fossil fuels.^ Vehicles use hydrogen as fuel in one of several ways, including fuel cells and hydrogen boosted engines among others.

• Hydrogen Fuel Stations Locations - Locate Hydrogen Fuel Stations Near You with Mapmuse's Hydrogen Fuel Stations Locator 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC find.mapmuse.com [Source type: Academic]

^ The problem is that zinc is produced by either electolysis or smelting, both processes having a high energy consumption and concurrent pollution resulting from the consumption of fossil fuels used to oproduce the energy.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Increasingly, expensive oil, coal and global warming are causing an energy revolution by requiring fossil fuels to be supplemented by alternative energy sources and by requiring changes in lifestyle.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Contents 1 Properties 1.1 Combustion 1.2 Electron energy levels 1.3 Elemental molecular forms 1.4 Compounds 1.4.1 Covalent and organic compounds 1.4.2 Hydrides 1.4.3 Protons and acids 1.5 Isotopes 2 History 2.1 Discovery and use 2.2 Role in quantum theory 3 Natural occurrence 4 Production 4.1 Laboratory 4.2 Industrial 4.3 Thermochemical 5 Applications 5.1 Energy carrier 5.2 Semiconductor industry 6 Biological reactions 7 Safety and precautions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Properties

Combustion

The Space Shuttle Main Engine burns hydrogen with oxygen, producing a nearly-invisible flame at full thrust.

.Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen^[7]) is highly flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume.^ The AquaTunePlus unit creates both hydrogen suspension and flammable gas .

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^ In a hydrogen economy, natural gas will become very expensive and other uses of natural gas than for vehicle transportation will be given a higher priority.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The generator creates large concentrations of hydrogen on demand making the injection a very high potency injection.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^[8] The enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is −286 kJ/mol:^[9]

2 H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2 H₂O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)^{[note 1]}

.Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in the concentration range 4-74% (volume per cent of hydrogen in air) and with chlorine in the range 5-95%.^ All 22 Passat Lingyus are roadworthy, with a range of 186 miles per hydrogen top-up.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The mixtures spontaneously detonate by spark, heat or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F).^[10] .Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle main engine compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster.^ U sing newly designed hydrogen engines optimized for NH3, little difference is expected between the performance of anhydrous ammonia compared to gasoline or diesel fuel.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. .The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames were the result of combustible materials in the ship's skin.^ The result is hydrogen suspension and the only ingredient left is pressure and heat to release its full energy from the combustion.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^[11] .Because hydrogen is buoyant in air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires.^ Introducing a small amount of hydrogen to an engine enhances the flame velocity and thus permits the engine to operate with a leaner air to fuel ratio than otherwise possible.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were instead the result of falls or burning diesel fuel.^ Yet the Department of Energy proposed to eliminate funding for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and for fuel cell deployment activities, cutting the program overall by two-thirds.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[12]

H₂ reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding hydrogen halides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are also potentially dangerous acids.^[13]

Electron energy levels

Main article: Hydrogen atom

Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about twice the Bohr model radius (image not to scale).

.The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 nm wavelength.^ Powered by hydrogen fuel cells, with a network hybrid design and made from carbon composites, it has been designed to achieve over 300 mpg (energy equivalent).

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ StatoilHydro sells hydrogen in Norway at around 40 Norwegian crowns ($6.28) per kilo, which it says is roughly equal in energy terms to the price of petrol.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Over the last twenty years Mr. Haberman has contributed to hydrogen energy activities in 22 states and in 13 countries.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[14]

.The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the sun.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

However, the electromagnetic force attracts electrons and protons to one another, while planets and celestial objects are attracted to each other by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.^[15]

.A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation or the equivalent Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton.^ Georgia Tech settled on a hydrogen-fueled vehicle for its carbon capture plan because pure hydrogen produces no carbon emissions when it is used as a fuel to power the vehicle.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ (NasdaqNM: FCEL ), has developed a cost-efficient system to separate pure hydrogen from a gas mixture that then can be sold as fuel for hydrogen vehicles or industrial uses.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Ng defined four key things that people look for when it comes to hydrogen storage: safety, hydrogen storage density, low cost and manufacturability.

• The Energy Blog: Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC thefraserdomain.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[16]

Elemental molecular forms

See also: Spin isomers of hydrogen

First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at the Bevatron

There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei.^[17] In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 (½+½); in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 (½-½). .At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal form".^[18] The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but since the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be purified.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The result is hydrogen suspension and the only ingredient left is pressure and heat to release its full energy from the combustion.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^ Jonathon Fahey Hydrogen Gas Forbes April 25, 2005 .

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

At very low temperatures, the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the para form. The liquid and gas phase thermal properties of pure parahydrogen differ significantly from those of the normal form because of differences in rotational heat capacities, as discussed more fully in Spin isomers of hydrogen.^[19] .The ortho/para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen-containing molecules or functional groups, such as water and methylene, but is of little significance for their thermal properties.^ It makes other water injection systems and hydrogen producing systems obsolete.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^ Syngas is made up mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but also contains nitrogen, greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, plus trace amounts of other gases.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[20]

.The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H₂ increases with increasing temperature; thus rapidly condensed H₂ contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho form that converts to the para form very slowly.^ The generator creates large concentrations of hydrogen on demand making the injection a very high potency injection.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^[21] .The ortho/para ratio in condensed H₂ is an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate some of the hydrogen liquid, leading to loss of liquefied material.^ Success in this project will lead to further fleet conversions at some or all of Anheuser-Buschs other 11 U.S. facilities.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Success at this distribution center will lead to further fleet conversions at some or all of Syscos other 169 distribution centers.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Success at this service center will lead to further fleet conversions at some or all of FedExs other 470 service centers.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel^[22] compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling.^[23]

A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen, or H +3, is found in the interstellar medium (ISM), where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. It has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. This molecule is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H +3 is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium.^[24] Neutral triatomic hydrogen H₃ can only exist in an excited from and is unstable.^[25]

Compounds

Further information: Hydrogen compounds

Covalent and organic compounds

.While H₂ is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements.^ Over 1,477.3 miles under the conditions described the roadster returned 33.87mpg, an improvement of 25.43% , which is very impressive for older technology.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

Millions of hydrocarbons are known, but they are not formed by the direct reaction of elementary hydrogen and carbon. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I); in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge.^[26] When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of strong noncovalent bonding called hydrogen bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules.^[27][28] Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as the metals and metalloids, in which it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides.^[29]

Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because of their general association with living things, these compounds came to be called organic compounds;^[30] the study of their properties is known as organic chemistry^[31] and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry.^[32] By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. .However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and since it is the carbon-hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry.^ Syngas is made up mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but also contains nitrogen, greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, plus trace amounts of other gases.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ However, the Premacy, a boxy crossover vehicle, has a more advanced system that gives it a range of 125 miles on hydrogen alone.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Especially since Popular Mechanics had some harsh words for the AquaTune System and other gas gadgets they tested.

• Get More Power and Miles Per Gallon (MPG) with Hydrogen Fuel System from Aquatune - Hydrogen Fuel Cell for Fuel Economy | Miles per Gallon | Aquatune Hydrogen Fuel System 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC hydrogen-fuel-systems.com [Source type: General]

^[30]

In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes.^[33]

Hydrides

.Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely.^ This is a national transition strategy to stimulate the production and use of hydrogen fuel in the near term.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H⁻, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element.^ This is a national transition strategy to stimulate the production and use of hydrogen fuel in the near term.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group I and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 with the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), that produced a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode.^[34] For hydrides other than group I and II metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is BeH₂, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the AlH −4 anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III). .Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, there are over 100 binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary aluminium hydride.^ And only one variation, plug-in hybrids, will be on the market anytime soon.

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^[35] Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist.^[36]

Protons and acids

Further information: Acid-base reaction

Oxidation of hydrogen, in the sense of removing its electron, formally gives H⁺, containing no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H⁺ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors.

A bare proton, H⁺, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals, because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. .However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted "H⁺" without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species.^ This is a national transition strategy to stimulate the production and use of hydrogen fuel in the near term.

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To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the "hydronium ion" (H₃O⁺). .However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are thought more realistically physically to be organized into clusters that form species closer to H₉O +4.^ However, the Premacy, a boxy crossover vehicle, has a more advanced system that gives it a range of 125 miles on hydrogen alone.

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^[37] Other oxonium ions are found when water is in solution with other solvents.^[38]

.Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H +3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the triatomic hydrogen cation.^ "One of the most important, frank, visionary and impassioned observations on the strategy for hydrogen energy that I have heard in the past 35 years.

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^[39]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen

.

Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, has one proton and one electron.^ "One of the most important, frank, visionary and impassioned observations on the strategy for hydrogen energy that I have heard in the past 35 years.

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Unique among all stable isotopes, it has no neutrons (see diproton for discussion of why others do not exist).

Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted ¹H, ²H and ³H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (⁴H to ⁷H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature.^[40][41]

.

• ¹H is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99.98%.^ HyNor has some 50 partners and manages a fleet of more than 50 hydrogen vehicles made by Mazda, Toyota and Think.
  • LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal name protium.^[42]
.
• ²H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleus.^ Syngas is made up mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but also contains nitrogen, greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, plus trace amounts of other gases.
  • LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  Essentially all deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that time. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for ¹H-NMR spectroscopy.^[43] Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.^[44]
• ³H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into Helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.^[33] Small amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests.^[45] It is used in nuclear fusion reactions,^[46] as a tracer in isotope geochemistry,^[47] and specialized in self-powered lighting devices.^[48] Tritium has also been used in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel.^[49]

Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today. (During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given names, but such names are no longer used). The symbols D and T (instead of ²H and ³H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol P is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium.^[50] In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, ²H, and ³H to be used, although ²H and ³H are preferred.^[51]

History

Discovery and use

Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Hydrogen gas, H₂, was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von Hohenheim (also known as Paracelsus, 1493–1541) via the mixing of metals with strong acids.^[52] He was unaware that the flammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was a new chemical element. .In 1671, Robert Boyle rediscovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas.^ The roadster project is a result of years of collaboration between key figures in ammonia and hydrogen fuel.

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^[53] .In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from a metal-acid reaction as "flammable air" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

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^ Rather than subsidize the expansion of the oil refining & industrial gas business model of using natural gas to produce hydrogen it is essential that national policy switch to using coal power to transform water into hydrogen.

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He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element.^[54][55] .In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek hydro meaning water and genes meaning creator)^[56] when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.^ This initial installation will produce hydrogen from Lake Erie water to fuel a mass transit bus powered by fuel cells.

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^ Fuel cells create an electrical current when they convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and heat.

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^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

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^[55]

Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask.^[55] He produced solid hydrogen the next year.^[55] Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck.^[54] Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932.^[55] François Isaac de Rivaz built the first internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.^[55]

The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783.^[55] Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard.^[55] German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900.^[55] Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war.

.The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose.^ The Swedish government's venture capital company for the automotive industry, Fouriertransform, is making its first investment of SEK60 million (5.2 million) in Powercell Sweden AB, which develops, produces and sells fuel cells, fuel reformers and auxillary power units.

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^ Business leaders, security experts, government officials, concerned citizens and the United States Supreme Court have called for enduring, pragmatic solutions to reduce the greenhouse gas pollution that is causing climate change.

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Therefore, H₂ was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on May 6, 1937.^[55] The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. .But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done.^ It is nonsensical to build the foundations of a new energy system (hydrogen) on the wildly unpredictable future of an already stressed resource (natural gas).

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.In the same year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co,^[57] because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas this is the most common type in its field today.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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^ The technology converts solid fuels, such as coal, into a cleaner burning hydrogen-rich fuel, which then is used by a gas turbine combined-cycle system to generate electricity, providing a cleaner, economical coal-to-power option.

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^ It represents the first such facility of its type anywhere in the world and will combine the production of hydrogen power with carbon capture and storage technologies.

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.The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2).^ That technology would either make all but 40 miles of the trip on gasoline (the range of the batteries) or stop 35 times to recharge, adding days to the trip.

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^ The vehicles employs a 6kW fuel cell made by [Singapore's] Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies that converts hydrogen into electricity, which is used to power motors on each of the vehicles four wheels.

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^ The technology not only efficiently uses pricey platinum, but is two-to-five times more effective than commercial catalysts .

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^[58] For example, the ISS,^[59] Mars Odyssey^[60] and the Mars Global Surveyor^[61] are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. .The Hubble Space Telescope, at the time its original batteries were finally changed in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch, led with the highest number of charge/discharge cycles.^ "The project is more than a key technology demonstration," said project team member Valerie Lyons, chief of Glenn's Power and In-Space Propulsion Division.

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^ Schwarzenegger Promotes H2 Fuel Los Angeles Times May 27, 2009 .

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^ Global Warming Twenty Years Later: Tipping Points Near James Hansen June 23, 2008 more CLIMATE CHANGE .

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Role in quantum theory

Hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the visible range. These are the four visible lines of the Balmer series

.Because of its relatively simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure.^ You can only get so many electrons out of a given atom."

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^[62] Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H₂⁺ allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

.One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived.^ "One of the most important, frank, visionary and impassioned observations on the strategy for hydrogen energy that I have heard in the past 35 years.

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Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H₂ unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H₂ because of its low mass. .These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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^ Fuel cells create an electrical current when they convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and heat.

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^ These indicators include global mean surface temperature, sea-level rise, global ocean temperature, Arctic sea ice extent, ocean acidification, and extreme climatic events.

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Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.^[63]

Natural occurrence

NGC 604, a giant region of ionized hydrogen in the Triangulum Galaxy

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms.^[64] This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H₂ are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear fusion.^[65]

.Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen.^ The implementation of the coal to hydrogen pathway will involve many states whose economies rely on coal.

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^ Ammonia as a Storage Medium for Hydrogen Proceedings from the Iowa State University NH3 conference www.energy.iastate.edu/Renewable/ammonia/index.htm .

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As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. .Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the Interstellar medium.^ Ammonia as a Storage Medium for Hydrogen Proceedings from the Iowa State University NH3 conference www.energy.iastate.edu/Renewable/ammonia/index.htm .

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The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4.^[66]

Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H₂ (for data see table). .However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases.^ HyNor has some 50 partners and manages a fleet of more than 50 hydrogen vehicles made by Mazda, Toyota and Think.

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^ "We conclude that even if all FCVs use hydrogen from natural gas, the impact on natural gas resources would be minimal on a global scale, and the slight decrease in natural gas consumption is more than offset by the larger increase in oil resources.

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^ Syngas is made up mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but also contains nitrogen, greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, plus trace amounts of other gases.

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However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface.^[67] .Most of the Earth's hydrogen is in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.^ This suggests that in the future, uranium mining could require more energy, water and industrial chemicals such as corrosives, and release more greenhouse gases.

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^[33] .Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus.^ Rather than subsidize the expansion of the oil refining & industrial gas business model of using natural gas to produce hydrogen it is essential that national policy switch to using coal power to transform water into hydrogen.

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^ Compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen are waiting to sweep into Americas garages.

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^ It is nonsensical to build the foundations of a new energy system (hydrogen) on the wildly unpredictable future of an already stressed resource (natural gas).

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Methane is a hydrogen source of increasing importance.^[68]

Production

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.

.H₂ is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.^ As we approach a costly part of the program, we will require government and industry partnerships to install a hydrogen infrastructure and help create a customer pull for the products.

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^ Rather than subsidize the expansion of the oil refining & industrial gas business model of using natural gas to produce hydrogen it is essential that national policy switch to using coal power to transform water into hydrogen.

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^ Dr Ben Bladergroen wants to perfect the production of hydrogen from coal and (later) other sources.

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Laboratory

In the laboratory, H₂ is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc with Kipp's apparatus.

Zn + 2 H⁺ → Zn²⁺ + H₂

Aluminium can also produce H₂ upon treatment with bases:

2 Al + 6 H₂O + 2 OH⁻ → 2 Al(OH) −4 + 3 H₂

.The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen.^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

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^ This initial installation will produce hydrogen from Lake Erie water to fuel a mass transit bus powered by fuel cells.

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.A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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^ Fuel cells create an electrical current when they convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and heat.

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Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is between 80–94%.^[69]

2H₂O(aq) → 2H₂(g) + O₂(g)

.In 2007, it was discovered that an alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water could be used to generate hydrogen.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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^ The fueling station will generate hydrogen from Lake Erie water for use in a Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority bus powered by fuel cells.

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^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

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The process also creates alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. .This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, since hydrogen can be produced on-site and does not need to be transported.^ "As a future clean transport alternative, hydrogen and fuel-cell technology have big potential.

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^ Hydrogen is potentially a game changing transportation fuel," says Ms Bech Gjrv.

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^ Manufacturing R&D for the Hydrogen Economy DOE 2006 .

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^[70]

Industrial

Main article: Hydrogen production

.Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons.^ "One of the most important, frank, visionary and impassioned observations on the strategy for hydrogen energy that I have heard in the past 35 years.

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.Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas.^ Rather than subsidize the expansion of the oil refining & industrial gas business model of using natural gas to produce hydrogen it is essential that national policy switch to using coal power to transform water into hydrogen.

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^ Compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen are waiting to sweep into Americas garages.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ It is nonsensical to build the foundations of a new energy system (hydrogen) on the wildly unpredictable future of an already stressed resource (natural gas).

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^[71] At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, °C;700–1100 °C or 1,300–2,000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H₂.

CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3 H₂

This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0  MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg) since high pressure H₂ is the most marketable product. .The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds.^ Natural gas should be prioritized for use in peak power production because natural gas combined cycle plants are the only stationary power generation which can be built quickly in the U.S. with acceptable risks.

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Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

CH₄ → C + 2 H₂

Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H₂O. .Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The fueling station will generate hydrogen from Lake Erie water for use in a Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority bus powered by fuel cells.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:^[71]

CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂

Other important methods for H₂ production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:^[72]

2 CH₄ + O₂ → 2 CO + 4 H₂

and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:^[71]

C + H₂O → CO + H₂

.Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated.^ In the near term, this pathway produces hydrogen fuel at the locations of opportunity without the burden of replicating the large capital expenditures of reformation based industry including pipelines and diesel truck fleets.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ One of hydrogen's big advantages is that it can be produced from many power sources, and can be efficiently produced and used without emitting any pollutants.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas.^ This conference coincides with the opening of a new generation hydrogen production and dispensing facility at Yeager Airport.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen are waiting to sweep into Americas garages.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Natural gas should be prioritized for use in peak power production because natural gas combined cycle plants are the only stationary power generation which can be built quickly in the U.S. with acceptable risks.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[73] Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product.^[74]

Thermochemical

.There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity.^ HyNor has some 50 partners and manages a fleet of more than 50 hydrogen vehicles made by Mazda, Toyota and Think.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The technology converts solid fuels, such as coal, into a cleaner burning hydrogen-rich fuel, which then is used by a gas turbine combined-cycle system to generate electricity, providing a cleaner, economical coal-to-power option.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[75] .A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This initial installation will produce hydrogen from Lake Erie water to fuel a mass transit bus powered by fuel cells.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ States that required utilities to tell their customers the energy sources used to produce their electricity and that also required utilities to offer "green power"electricity produced from renewable energy sourcesended up with more renewable energy development.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[76]

Applications

Large quantities of H₂ are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H₂ is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H₂ in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H₂ has several other important uses. .H₂ is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol.^ In order to increase the use of hydrogen fuel it must be priced competitively against gasoline and diesel.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ It represents the first such facility of its type anywhere in the world and will combine the production of hydrogen power with carbon capture and storage technologies.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ "We conclude that even if all FCVs use hydrogen from natural gas, the impact on natural gas resources would be minimal on a global scale, and the slight decrease in natural gas consumption is more than offset by the larger increase in oil resources.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H₂ is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores.^[77]

Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals^[78] and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals.^[79] Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice.^[80]. .These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas serves as a metallurgical problem as hydrogen solubility contributes in an unwanted way to embrittle many metals,^{[5 ]} complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.^ The designs that Riversimple is licensing to 40 Fires resemble in many ways the code base which a complex software project starts with.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[6]

Apart from its use as a reactant, H₂ has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.^[81][82] H₂ is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H₂ is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.^[83] Since H₂ is lighter than air, having a little more than ¹⁄₁₅ of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.^[84]

In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industries.^[85] Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties.^[86]

Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions.^[55] Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects.^[87] Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs,^[88] as an isotopic label in the biosciences,^[49] and as a radiation source in luminous paints.^[89]

The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90 temperature scale at 13.8033 kelvins.^[90]

Energy carrier

See also: Hydrogen economy and Hydrogen infrastructure

Hydrogen is not an energy resource,^[91] except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development.^[92] The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth.^[93] Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable.^[91]

The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher.^[91] Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale.^[94] For example, CO₂ sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H₂ production from fossil fuels.^[95] Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx emissions,^[96] but without carbon emissions.^[95] However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial.^[97]

Semiconductor industry

Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken ("dangling") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties.^[98] It is also a potential electron donor in various oxide materials, including ZnO,^[99][100] SnO₂, CdO, MgO,^[101] ZrO₂, HfO₂, La₂O₃, Y₂O₃, TiO₂, SrTiO₃, LaAlO₃, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, ZrSiO₄, HfSiO₄, and SrZrO₃.^[102]

Biological reactions

Further information: Biohydrogen and Biological hydrogen production

H₂ is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H₂ and its component two protons and two electrons. .Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Fuel cells create an electrical current when they convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and heat.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ GMs hydrogen fuel cell Equinox uses simple electrolyzed water to create the hydrogen gas that powers the car.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[103]

.Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms.^ The company seeks to keep its hydrogen clean by using energy from Norway's vast hydropower-plants to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Fuel cells create an electrical current when they convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and heat.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The demonstration, featuring a unique, high-capacity electrolyzer that separates water into its elemental components of hydrogen and oxygen, is part of an economic development program in the Cleveland area.

• LATEST ADVANCES 1 - Why Renewable Hydrogen will replace Oil, Coal & Nuclear - Hydrogen Commerce 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.hydrogencommerce.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Some such organisms—including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria—have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H₂ gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast.^[104] Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H₂ gas even in the presence of oxygen.^[105] Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor.^[106]

Safety and precautions

Main article: Hydrogen safety

Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxant in its pure, oxygen-free form.^[107] In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids.^[108] Hydrogen dissolves in some metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement.^[109] .Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite.^ Being lighter than air at ambient temperature, if a leak occurs it quickly dissipates into the atmosphere rather than pooling in a concentrated mass that can be easily ignited.

• Hydrogen POWER - The Automotive eZine 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.lilith-ezine.com [Source type: News]

^ Stuart Energy Systems Corporation Dealing into hydrogen plants, hydrogen generators, hydrogen compressoin, oxygen compression, gas purification, oxygen generators, gas equipment, electrolysis equipment and gas storage system.

• PSA Plants Suppliers,PSA Plants Manufacturers,PSA Plants Supplier,PSA Plants Manufacturer 11 September 2009 6:31 UTC www.psaplants.com [Source type: Reference]

^ The British chemist Joseph Priestly named the gas "inflammable air" in 1781, and the French chemist Atoine Laurent Lavosier renamed it hydrogen.

• Articles by Kids 4 Hydrogen 28 January 2010 0:00 UTC www.kids4hydrogen.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns.^[110]

Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.^[107]

See also

• Antihydrogen
• Hydrogen cycle
• Hydrogen leak testing
• Hydrogen line
• Hydrogen-like atom
• Hydrogen planes
• Hydrogen spectral series
• Hydrogen station
• Hydrogen technologies
• Hydrogen vehicle
• Metallic hydrogen
• Oxyhydrogen
• Photohydrogen

Notes

1. ^ 286 kJ/mol: energy per mole of the combustible material (hydrogen)

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External links

• Basic Hydrogen Calculations of Quantum Mechanics
• Hydrogen phase diagram
• Wavefunction of hydrogen