| Orthomyxoviridae | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Electron micrograph of Influenza A viruses | |
| Virus classification | |
| Group: | Group V ((-)ssRNA) |
| Family: | Orthomyxoviridae |
| Genera | |
|
Influenzavirus A |
|
 |
|
Influenzavirus A is a genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses. Influenzavirus A includes only one species: Influenza A virus which causes influenza in birds and some mammals. Strains of all subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated from wild birds, although disease is uncommon. Some isolates of influenza A virus cause severe disease both in domestic poultry and, rarely, in humans.[1] Occasionally viruses are transmitted from wild aquatic birds to domestic poultry and this may cause an outbreak or give rise to human influenza pandemics.[2][3]
Influenza A viruses are negative sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA viruses. There are several subtypes, labeled according to an H number (for the type of hemagglutinin) and an N number (for the type of neuraminidase). There are 16 different H antigens (H1 to H16) and nine different N antigens (N1 to N9). The newest H type (H16) was isolated from black-headed gulls caught in Sweden and the Netherlands in 1999 and reported in the literature in 2005.[4]
Each virus subtype has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles; some pathogenic to one species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species.
Contents |
Variants are identified and named according to the isolate that they are like and thus are presumed to share lineage (example Fujian flu virus like); according to their typical host (example Human flu virus); according to their subtype (example H3N2); and according to their deadliness (example LP, Low Pathogenic). So a flu from a virus similar to the isolate A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2) is called Fujian flu, human flu, and H3N2 flu.
Variants are sometimes named according to the species (host) the strain is endemic in or adapted to. The main variants named using this convention are:
Variants have also sometimes been named according to their deadliness in poultry, especially chickens:
Most known strains are extinct strains. For example, the annual flu subtype H3N2 no longer contains the strain that caused the Hong Kong Flu.
The annual flu (also called "seasonal flu" or "human flu") in the U.S. "results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the U.S." [5].
The annually updated trivalent influenza vaccine consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.[6]
The dominant strain in January 2006 was H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from 1% in 1994 to 12% in 2003 to 91% in 2005.
"[C]ontemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this intermediate host." [7]
"The physical structure of all influenza A viruses is similar. The virions or virus particles are enveloped and can be either spherical or filamentous in form. In clinical isolates that have undergone limited passages in eggs or tissue culture, there are more filamentous than spherical particles, whereas passaged laboratory strains consist mainly of spherical virions."[8]
The Influenza A virus genome is contained on eight single (non-paired) RNA strands that code for eleven proteins (HA, NA, NP, M1, M2, NS1, NEP, PA, PB1, PB1-F2, PB2). The total genome size is 13,588 bases.[9] The segmented nature of the genome allows for the exchange of entire genes between different viral strains during cellular cohabitation. The eight RNA segments are:
The genome segments have common terminal sequences, and the ends of the RNA strands are partially complementary, allowing them to bond to each other by hydrogen bonds. After transcription from negative-sense to positive-sense RNA the +RNA strands get the cellular 5' cap added by cap snatching, which involves the viral protein NS1 binding to the cellular pre-mRNAs. The cap is then cleaved from the cellular pre-mRNA using a second viral protein, PB2. The short oligo cap is then added to the influenza +RNA strands, allowing its processing as messenger RNA by ribosomes. The +RNA strands also serve for synthesis of -RNA strands for new virions.
The RNA synthesis and its assembly with the nucleoprotein takes place in the cell nucleus, the synthesis of proteins takes place in the cytoplasm. The assembled virion cores leave the nucleus and migrate towards the cell membrane, with patches of viral transmembrane proteins (hemagglutinin, neuraminidase and M2 proteins) and an underlying layer of the M1 protein, and bud through these patches, releasing finished enveloped viruses into the extracellular fluid.
Wild fowl act as natural asymptomatic carriers of Influenza A viruses. Prior to the current H5N1 epizootic, strains of Influenza A virus had been demonstrated to be transmitted from wild fowl to only birds, pigs, horses, seals, whales and humans; and only between humans and pigs and between humans and domestic fowl; and not other pathways such as domestic fowl to horse.[11]
Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a large variety of influenza A viruses. Occasionally viruses are transmitted from these birds to other species and may then cause devastating outbreaks in domestic poultry or give rise to human influenza pandemics.[2][3]
H5N1 has been shown to be transmitted to tigers, leopards, and domestic cats that were fed uncooked domestic fowl (chickens) with the virus. H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs. Laboratory mice have been infected successfully with a variety of avian flu genotypes.[12]
Influenza A viruses spread in the air and in manure and survives longer in cold weather. It can also be transmitted by contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing; however, there is no evidence that the virus can survive in well-cooked meat. Symptoms in animals vary, but virulent strains can cause death within a few days.
"Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus is on every top ten list available for potential agricultural bioweapon agents".[13]
Avian influenza viruses that the OIE and others test for in order to control poultry disease include: H5N1, H7N2, H1N7, H7N3, H13N6, H5N9, H11N6, H3N8, H9N2, H5N2, H4N8, H10N7, H2N2, H8N4, H14N5, H6N5, H12N5 and others.
| Year | Area | Affected | Subtype |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1959 | Scotland | chicken | H5N1 |
| 1963 | England | turkey | H7N3 |
| 1966 | Ontario (Canada) | turkey | H5N9 |
| 1976 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1979 | Germany | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1979 | England | turkey | H7N7 |
| 1983 | Pennsylvania (USA)* | chicken, turkey | H5N2 |
| 1983 | Ireland | turkey | H5N8 |
| 1985 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1991 | England | turkey | H5N1 |
| 1992 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1994 | Queensland (Australia) | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1994 | Mexico* | chicken | H5N2 |
| 1994 | Pakistan* | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1997 | New South Wales (Australia) | chicken | H7N4 |
| 1997 | Hong Kong (China)* | chicken | H5N1 |
| 1997 | Italy | chicken | H5N2 |
| 1999 | Italy* | turkey | H7N1 |
| 2002 | Hong Kong (China) | chicken | H5N1 |
| 2002 | Chile | chicken | H7N3 |
| 2003 | Netherlands* | chicken | H7N7 |
|
*Outbreaks with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses. Most other outbreaks involved little or no spread from the initially infected farms. |
|||
1979: "More than 400 harbor seals, most of them immature, died along the New England coast between December 1979 and October 1980 of acute pneumonia associated with influenza virus, A/Seal/Mass/1/180 (H7N7)." [15]
1995: "[V]accinated birds can develop asymptomatic infections that allow virus to spread, mutate, and recombine (ProMED-mail, 2004j). Intensive surveillance is required to detect these “silent epidemics” in time to curtail them. In Mexico, for example, mass vaccination of chickens against epidemic H5N2 influenza in 1995 has had to continue in order to control a persistent and evolving virus (Lee et al., 2004)." [16]
1997: "Influenza A viruses normally seen in one species sometimes can cross over and cause illness in another species. For example, until 1997, only H1N1 viruses circulated widely in the U.S. pig population. However, in 1997, H3N2 viruses from humans were introduced into the pig population and caused widespread disease among pigs. Most recently, H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs." [17]
2000: "In California, poultry producers kept their knowledge of a recent H6N2 avian influenza outbreak to themselves due to their fear of public rejection of poultry products; meanwhile, the disease spread across the western United States and has since become endemic." [18]
2003: In Netherlands H7N7 influenza virus infection broke out in poultry on several farms.[19]
2004: In North America, the presence of avian influenza strain H7N3 was confirmed at several poultry farms in British Columbia in February 2004. As of April 2004, 18 farms had been quarantined to halt the spread of the virus.[20]
2005: Tens of millions of birds died of H5N1 influenza and hundreds of millions of birds were culled to protect humans from H5N1. H5N1 is endemic in birds in southeast Asia and represents a long term pandemic threat.
2006: H5N1 spreads across the globe killing hundreds of millions of birds and over 100 people causing a significant H5N1 impact from both actual deaths and predicted possible deaths.
"Human influenza virus" usually refers to those subtypes that spread widely among humans. H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are the only known Influenza A virus subtypes currently circulating among humans.[21]
Genetic factors in distinguishing between "human flu viruses" and "avian influenza viruses" include:
"About 52 key genetic changes distinguish avian influenza strains from those that spread easily among people, according to researchers in Taiwan, who analyzed the genes of more than 400 A type flu viruses."[22] "How many mutations would make an avian virus capable of infecting humans efficiently, or how many mutations would render an influenza virus a pandemic strain, is difficult to predict. We have examined sequences from the 1918 strain, which is the only pandemic influenza virus that could be entirely derived from avian strains. Of the 52 species-associated positions, 16 have residues typical for human strains; the others remained as avian signatures. The result supports the hypothesis that the 1918 pandemic virus is more closely related to the avian influenza A virus than are other human influenza viruses."[23]
Human flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune.
Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in a human is far worse, killing 50% of humans that catch it. In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms.[24]
The Influenza A virus subtypes that have been confirmed in humans, ordered by the number of known human pandemic deaths, are:
Taubenberger says:
Researchers from the National Institutes of Health used data from the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and concluded that during the ten-year period examined most of the time the hemagglutinin gene in H3N2 showed no significant excess of mutations in the antigenic regions while an increasing variety of strains accumulated. This resulted in one of the variants eventually achieving higher fitness, becoming dominant, and in a brief interval of rapid evolution rapidly sweeping through the population and eliminating most other variants.[35]
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| Orthomyxoviridae | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Influenza A - late Electron micrograph of Influenza A viruses
| ||||
| Virus classification | ||||
| ||||
| Genera | ||||
|
Influenzavirus A |
|
Influenzavirus A is a genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses. Influenzavirus A includes only one species: Influenza A virus which causes influenza in birds and some mammals. Strains of all subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated from wild birds, although disease is uncommon. Some isolates of influenza A virus cause severe disease both in domestic poultry and, rarely, in humans.[1] Occasionally viruses are transmitted from wild aquatic birds to domestic poultry and this may cause an outbreak or give rise to human influenza pandemics.[2][3]
Influenza A viruses are negative sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA viruses. There are several subtypes, labeled according to an H number (for the type of hemagglutinin) and an N number (for the type of neuraminidase). There are 16 different H antigens (H1 to H16) and nine different N antigens (N1 to N9). The newest H type (H16) was isolated from black-headed gulls caught in Sweden and the Netherlands in 1999 and reported in the literature in 2005.[4]
Each virus subtype has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles; some pathogenic to one species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species.
Contents |
Variants are identified and named according to the isolate that they are like and thus are presumed to share lineage (example Fujian flu virus like); according to their typical host (example Human flu virus); according to their subtype (example H3N2); and according to their deadliness (example LP, Low Pathogenic). So a flu from a virus similar to the isolate A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2) is called Fujian flu, human flu, and H3N2 flu.
Variants are sometimes named according to the species (host) the strain is endemic in or adapted to. The main variants named using this convention are:
Variants have also sometimes been named according to their deadliness in poultry, especially chickens:
Most known strains are extinct strains. For example, the annual flu subtype H3N2 no longer contains the strain that caused the Hong Kong Flu.
The annual flu (also called "seasonal flu" or "human flu") in the U.S. "results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the U.S." [5].
The annually updated trivalent influenza vaccine consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses. [6]
The dominant strain in January 2006 is H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from 1% in 1994 to 12% in 2003 to 91% in 2005.
"[C]ontemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this intermediate host." [7]
Template:Seealso "The physical structure of all influenza A viruses is similar. The virions or virus particles are enveloped and can be either spherical or filamentous in form. In clinical isolates that have undergone limited passages in eggs or tissue culture, there are more filamentous than spherical particles, whereas passaged laboratory strains consist mainly of spherical virions."[8]
The Influenza A virus genome is contained on eight single (non-paired) RNA strands that code for eleven proteins (HA, NA, NP, M1, M2, NS1, NEP, PA, PB1, PB1-F2, PB2). The total genome size is 13,588 bases.[9] The segmented nature of the genome allows for the exchange of entire genes between different viral strains during cellular cohabitation. The eight RNA segments are:
The genome segments have common terminal sequences, and the ends of the RNA strands are partially complementary, allowing them to bond to each other by hydrogen bonds. After transcription from negative-sense to positive-sense RNA the +RNA strands get the cellular 5' cap added by cap snatching, which involves the viral protein NS1 binding to the cellular pre-mRNAs. The cap is then cleaved from the cellular pre-mRNA using a second viral protein, PB2. The short oligo cap is then added to the influenza +RNA strands, allowing its processing as messenger RNA by ribosomes. The +RNA strands also serve for synthesis of -RNA strands for new virions.
The RNA synthesis and its assembly with the nucleoprotein takes place in the cell nucleus, the synthesis of proteins takes place in the cytoplasm. The assembled virion cores leave the nucleus and migrate towards the cell membrane, with patches of viral transmembrane proteins (hemagglutinin, neuraminidase and M2 proteins) and an underlying layer of the M1 protein, and bud through these patches, releasing finished enveloped viruses into the extracellular fluid.
Wild fowl act as natural asymptomatic carriers of Influenza A viruses. Prior to the current H5N1 epizootic, strains of Influenza A virus had been demonstrated to be transmitted from wild fowl to only birds, pigs, horses, seals, whales and humans; and only between humans and pigs and between humans and domestic fowl; and not other pathways such as domestic fowl to horse. [11]
Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a large variety of influenza A viruses. Occasionally viruses are transmitted from these birds to other species and may then cause devastating outbreaks in domestic poultry or give rise to human influenza pandemics.[2][3]
H5N1 has been shown to be transmitted to tigers, leopards, and domestic cats that were fed uncooked domestic fowl (chickens) with the virus. H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs. Laboratory mice have been infected successfully with a variety of avian flu genotypes. [12]
Influenza A viruses spread in the air and in manure and survives longer in cold weather. It can also be transmitted by contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing; however, there is no evidence that the virus can survive in well-cooked meat. Symptoms in animals vary, but virulent strains can cause death within a few days.
"Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus is on every top ten list available for potential agricultural bioweapon agents". [13]
Avian influenza viruses that the OIE and others test for in order to control poultry disease include: H5N1, H7N2, H1N7, H7N3, H13N6, H5N9, H11N6, H3N8, H9N2, H5N2, H4N8, H10N7, H2N2, H8N4, H14N5, H6N5, H12N5 and others.
| Year | Area | Affected | Subtype |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1959 | Scotland | chicken | H5N1 |
| 1963 | England | turkey | H7N3 |
| 1966 | Ontario (Canada) | turkey | H5N9 |
| 1976 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1979 | Germany | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1979 | England | turkey | H7N7 |
| 1983 | Pennsylvania (USA)* | chicken,turkey | H5N2 |
| 1983 | Ireland | turkey | H5N8 |
| 1985 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N7 |
| 1991 | England | turkey | H5N1 |
| 1992 | Victoria (Australia) | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1994 | Queensland (Australia) | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1994 | Mexico* | chicken | H5N2 |
| 1994 | Pakistan* | chicken | H7N3 |
| 1997 | New South Wales (Australia) | chicken | H7N4 |
| 1997 | Hong Kong (China)* | chicken | H5N1 |
| 1997 | Italy | chicken | H5N2 |
| 1999 | Italy* | turkey | H7N1 |
| 2002 | Hong Kong (China) | chicken | H5N1 |
| 2002 | Chile | chicken | H7N3 |
| 2003 | Netherlands* | chicken | H7N7 |
|
*Outbreaks with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses. Most other outbreaks involved little or no spread from the initially infected farms. | |||
1979: "More than 400 harbor seals, most of them immature, died along the New England coast between December 1979 and October 1980 of acute pneumonia associated with influenza virus, A/Seal/Mass/1/180 (H7N7)." [15]
1995: "[V]accinated birds can develop asymptomatic infections that allow virus to spread, mutate, and recombine (ProMED-mail, 2004j). Intensive surveillance is required to detect these “silent epidemics” in time to curtail them. In Mexico, for example, mass vaccination of chickens against epidemic H5N2 influenza in 1995 has had to continue in order to control a persistent and evolving virus (Lee et al., 2004)." [16]
1997: "Influenza A viruses normally seen in one species sometimes can cross over and cause illness in another species. For example, until 1997, only H1N1 viruses circulated widely in the U.S. pig population. However, in 1997, H3N2 viruses from humans were introduced into the pig population and caused widespread disease among pigs. Most recently, H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs." [17]
2000: "In California, poultry producers kept their knowledge of a recent H6N2 avian influenza outbreak to themselves due to their fear of public rejection of poultry products; meanwhile, the disease spread across the western United States and has since become endemic." [18]
2003: In Netherlands H7N7 influenza virus infection broke out in poultry on several farms. [19]
2004: In North America, the presence of avian influenza strain H7N3 was confirmed at several poultry farms in British Columbia in February 2004. As of April 2004, 18 farms had been quarantined to halt the spread of the virus. [20]
2005: Tens of millions of birds died of H5N1 influenza and hundreds of millions of birds were culled to protect humans from H5N1. H5N1 is endemic in birds in southeast Asia and represents a long term pandemic threat.
2006: H5N1 spreads across the globe killing hundreds of millions of birds and over 100 people causing a significant H5N1 impact from both actual deaths and predicted possible deaths.
"Human influenza virus" usually refers to those subtypes that spread widely among humans. H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are the only known Influenza A virus subtypes currently circulating among humans. [21]
Genetic factors in distinguishing between "human flu viruses" and "avian influenza viruses" include:
"About 52 key genetic changes distinguish avian influenza strains from those that spread easily among people, according to researchers in Taiwan, who analyzed the genes of more than 400 A type flu viruses."[22] "How many mutations would make an avian virus capable of infecting humans efficiently, or how many mutations would render an influenza virus a pandemic strain, is difficult to predict. We have examined sequences from the 1918 strain, which is the only pandemic influenza virus that could be entirely derived from avian strains. Of the 52 species-associated positions, 16 have residues typical for human strains; the others remained as avian signatures. The result supports the hypothesis that the 1918 pandemic virus is more closely related to the avian influenza A virus than are other human influenza viruses."[23]
Human flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune.
Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in a human is far worse, killing 50% of humans that catch it. In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms. [24]
The Influenza A virus subtypes that have been confirmed in humans, ordered by the number of known human pandemic deaths, are:
Taubenberger says:
Researchers from the National Institutes of Health used data from the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and concluded that during the ten-year period examined most of the time the hemagglutinin gene in H3N2 showed no significant excess of mutations in the antigenic regions while an increasing variety of strains accumulated. This resulted in one of the variants eventually achieving higher fitness, becoming dominant, and in a brief interval of rapid evolution rapidly sweeping through the population and eliminating most other variants.[35]
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Main Page
Regnum: Virus
Phylum: not divided
Classis: not divided
Ordo: Unassigned
Familia: Orthomyxoviridae
Genus: Influenzavirus
A
Species: H1N1 virus -
H1N2 virus - H2N2 virus - H2N8 virus - H3N1 virus - H3N2 virus -
H3N8 virus - H5N1 virus - H5N2 virus - H5N3 virus - H5N8 virus -
H5N9 virus - H7N1 virus - H7N2 virus - H7N3 virus - H7N4 virus -
H7N7 virus - H9N2 virus - H10N7 virus
   | WHO Avian influenza frequently asked questions. - WHO | Avian influenza frequently asked questions |
 | New England Journal of Medicine - NEJM -- Fatal Avian Influenza A (H5N1) in a Child Presenting with Diarrhea Followed by Coma |
| | A guide to bird flu and its symptoms from BBC Health. - BBC - Health - Conditions - Bird flu |
| | Avian Flu Preparedness Guide - from The Center for Technology and National Security Policy - Center for Technology and National Security Policy - Protection From Avian Flu |
| | CDC page about Avian influenza - CDC - Influenza (Flu) |Avian Flu |
| | Overview of H5N1 - NEJM -- Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Infection in Humans |
| | BBC News - BBC NEWS | Programmes | Panorama | Early bird flu warning for Dutch |
| | New York Times - The New York Times > Log In |
| | CDC detailed analysis - Human Illness from Avian Influenza, British Columbia | CDC EID |
| | Avian flu, bioterror, animals (page in an online book) - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | Flu Breaking News - About Influenza (flu)-Latest on Swine flu Influenza A (H1N1) |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NAP Books - The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary |
| | NCBI - NLM - NIH - Mass mortality of harbor seals: pneumonia associat...[Science. 1982] - PubMed Result |
| | CIDRAP - Center for Infectious Disease Research And Policy - CIDRAP >> Pandemic Influenza |
| | WHO - WHO | Avian influenza (" bird flu") |
| | Reason - Bird Flu: Threat or Menace?: Why avian sniffles need not ruffle our feathers... too much - Reason Magazine |
| | New York Times - The New York Times > Log In |
| | CDC - Influenza A (H3N2) Outbreak, Nepal | CDC EID |
| | Is a Global Flu Pandemic Imminent? - Is a Global Flu Pandemic Imminent? : Avian Influenza Infection in Humans |
| | Current status (Google news of avian+OR+bird+flu+OR+influenza) - avian OR bird flu OR influenza - Google News |
| | Bird Flu is a Real Pandemic Threat to Humans - Bird Flu is a Real Pandemic Threat to Humans |
| | Links to Bird Flu pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa) - Hardin MD : Bird Flu / Asian Flu / H5N1 |
| | Known outbreaks of highly pathogenic flu in poultry 1959-2003 - WHO | Avian influenza A(H5N1)- update 31: Situation (poultry) in Asia: need for a long-term response, comparison with previous outbreaks |
| | UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot entry P09345 - UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot entry P09345 [HEMA_I59A0] Hemagglutinin |
| | Avian influenza information - FAO's Animal Production and Health Division |
| | Influenza Report 2006 - Influenza Textbook | A Medical Textbook, 225 pages |
| | Pandemic Influenza: Domestic Preparedness Efforts - CRS Reports at UNT Libraries -- Pandemic Influenza: Domestic Preparedness Efforts |
| | European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control - European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control has moved to ecdc.europa.eu |
| | Flu Wiki - www.fluwikie.com |
| | Bloomberg News - Scientists Move Closer to Understanding Flu Virus Evolution - Bloomberg.com |
| | Science Daily - New Study Has Important Implications For Flu Surveillance |
| | CDC - 1918 Influenza Pandemic | CDC EID |
| | Influenza Virology: Current Topics ISBN 978-1-904455-06-6 - Influenza Virology: Current Topics | Book |
| | Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6 - Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology | Book |
| | Special Issue - Volume 12, Number 1 | CDC EID |
| | Using GIDEON to diagnose Avian Flu. - GIDEON - Avian Flu diagnosis demo |
| | Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus. - CDC - Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus |
| | Avian Flu at Typepad: a blog with further links. - Avian Flu - What we need to know |
| | FIC, flu in china & flu information center (bilingual, with forums). - FIC, flu in china & flu information center |
| | Updated daily news digest on bird flu and the pandemic - The Coming Influenza Pandemic? |
| | Bird Flu Drug Rendered Useless: Chinese Chickens Given Medication Made for Humans - Bird Flu Drug Rendered Useless |
| | Bird flu experts warn of pandemic - BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Bird flu experts warn of pandemic |
| | H5N1 bird flu and migratory birds forum. - DocMartin | Passion for the Wild, PR for the Planet |
| | Information regarding Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and the possibility of Human Pandemic. - bird flu - The Pulse |
| | United Nations begins ensure that there are effective local, national, regional and global preparations for a potential avian flu pandemic - PRESS CONFERENCE BY UN SYSTEM SENIOR COORDINATOR FOR AVIAN, HUMAN INFLUENZA |
| | ProMED-mail: general "emerging diseases", with a full section on avian influenza. - HTML META tag refresh |
| | Pandemic Influenza Risk Communication: The Teachable Moment, by Sandman and Lanard - Pandemic Influenza Risk Communication: The Teachable Moment (Peter Sandman/Jody Lanard column) |
| | Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus - Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus - New York Times |
| | Avian influenza - NewsXS : Bird flu news |
| | Avian Flu News - Bird Flu News |
| | Up-to-date avian flu information - Worldwide Disasters » Pandemics |
| | Avian-Influenza.com - website with information on Control, Preparation, and the latest news on Outbreaks. Sponsored by Intervet. - Intervet - Avian Influenza - Home Page |
| | Avian Flu News Links - Avian Flu – Helping you to find information on Avian Flu. |
| | Flu News Updates - Flu_Pandemic : Flu Pandemic |
| | BBC News Round-Up Of Avian Flu Blogs - BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | When fake blogs attack |
| | Bird Flu Timeline - Avian Influenza A Historical Timeline |
| | Google Blog article with basic information on Avian influenza written by Taraneh Razavi, M.D - Official Google Blog: Bird flu basics |
| | Bird Flu News Site - Bird Flu News Site :: avian influenza virus :: latest updates |
|
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