.^ In medicine, a medical problem that occurs during a disease, or after a procedure or treatment.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The
word "medicine" (Lat.
medicina: sc.
.^ A device used to deliver drugs directly to the cervix (the lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Cultured cells may be used to diagnose infections, to test new drugs, and in research.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A form of the anticancer drug camptothecin that may have fewer side effects and work better than camptothecin.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Disease (see
Pathology) is the correlative of health, and
the word is not capable of a more penetrating definition.
.^ After this happens several times, the first signal alone can cause the response that would usually need the second signal.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A type of kidney tumor that is usually found before birth by ultrasound or within the first 3 months of life.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ In medicine, describes the delivery of health care over a period of time.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ These enzymes change many drugs, including anticancer drugs, into less toxic forms that are easier for the body to excrete.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ NIDA uses its monopoly to fundamentally obstruct research aimed at developing marijuana into an FDA-approved prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ NIDA's monopoly fundamentally obstructs MAPS research aimed at developing smoked or vaporized marijuana into a prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ NIDA's monopoly fundamentally obstructs MAPS research aimed at developing smoked or vaporized marijuana into a prescription medicine .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Surgery to remove the entire uterus, including the cervix.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
A third great
department of practice is formed by obstetric medicine or midwifery
(see
Obstetrics); and
dentistry, or dental
surgery, is given up to a distinct branch of the profession.
A state of war, actual or contingent, gives occasion to special
developments of medical and surgical practice (military
hygiene and military surgery).
Wounds caused by projectiles, sabres, &c., are the special
subject of naval and military surgery; while under the head of
military hygiene we may include the general subject of ambulances,
the sanitary arrangements of camps, and the various forms of
epidemic camp sickness.
.^ Research into alternative delivery methods such as vaporization was one of the primary recommendations of the Institute of Medicine's landmark 1999 report on medical marijuana .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A new medical marijuana DEA Administrative Law Judge hearing was formally launched on Monday, February 7.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Lester Grinspoon wrote an excellent paper, "The History of Cannabis as Medicine" for the DEA Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) hearing starting August 22, 2005.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Under the direction of the Knesset (Israels legislative body), the Israeli Ministry of Health is considering allowing medical marijuana producers to sell marijuana to Ministry of Health approved patients.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Public Health, Massachusetts Senators Kerry and Kennedy, 38 members of the US House of Representatives, and the California and Texas State Medical Associations, the two largest US state medical associations.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A program of the National Institutes of Health to bring together an independent group of experts to review scientific evidence related to an important public health issue.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
History Of Medicine
Medicine a Portrayed in the Homeric
Poems. - In the state of society pictured by
Homer it is clear that medicine has already had a
history.
.^ Modulates thiol groups in biological systems, especially in those involving cAMP, Ca 2+ and inositol phosphate.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ This is incredibly damning since time delays in pharmaceutical drug development are very expensive and substantially impede the process.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The Homeric heroes themselves are
repre sented as having considerable skill in surgery, and as able
to attend to ordinary wounds and injuries, but there is also a
professional class, represented by Machaon and Podalirius, the two
sons of Asclepius, who are treated with great respect. It would
appear, too, from the
Aethiopis of Archinus (quoted by
Welcker and Haser) that the duties of these two were not precisely
the same. Machaon's task was more especially to heal injuries,
while Podalirius had received from .his father the gift of
"recognizing what was not visible to the eye, and tending what
could not be healed." In other words, a rough indication is seen of
the separation of medicine and surgery. Asclepius appears in Homer
as a Thessalian king, not as a god, though.in later times divine
honours were paid to him.
.^ There seems to be no appeal process at all in the PHS/NIDA review of medical marijuana research proposals and there are certainly no deadlines that compel PHS/NIDA to respond within any reasonable period of time.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ There have been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facilities since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ As far as we can tell, there has been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facility since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Although the actual organization of medicine among the Homeric
Greeks was thus quite distinct from religion, the worship of
Asclepius (or Aesculapius) as the god of healing demands some
notice.
.^ There seems to be no appeal process at all in the PHS/NIDA review of medical marijuana research proposals and there are certainly no deadlines that compel PHS/NIDA to respond within any reasonable period of time.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ We also got Gust to acknowledge that the priorities of the HHS guidelines for providing marijuana to researchers are clearly skewed away from research aimed at developing marijuana into a medicine in its plant form, with the guidelines even using the word "must" be aimed at developing marijuana extracts.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ NIDA uses its monopoly to fundamentally obstruct research aimed at developing marijuana into an FDA-approved prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Sick persons
repaired, or were conveyed, to the temples of Asclepius in order to
be healed, just as in modern times relief is sought by a devotional
pilgrimage or from the
waters of some sacred spring, and then as now the healing influence
was sometimes sought by deputy. The sick person, or his
representative, after
ablution,
prayer and sacrifice, was made to
sleep on the
hide of the sacrificed animal, or at the feet of
the statue of the god, while sacred rites were performed. In his
sleep (incubatio, 1yuou / 7 ra) the appropriate remedy was
indicated by a
dream.
.^ The demand for limiting business power springs more often from those who feel themselves at a disadvantage in interbusiness transactions than it does from households ...- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Crosses the blood-brain barrier more readily than cyclothiazide and diazoxide and is a more potent cognitive enhancing drug.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ In case a consumer experiences delay in the arrival of the consignment of generic drugs, we ship the consignment at absolutely no cost to the customer.- Prescription Medicines - Prescription Drugs & Medicines, Indian online pharmacy for all type of generic drugs 1 February 2010 1:49 UTC www.alldaychemist.com [Source type: Reference]
But the
priests of Asclepius were not physicians. Although the latter were
often called Asclepiads, this was in the first place to indicate
their real or supposed descent from Asclepius, and in the second
place as a complimentary title. No medical writing of antiquity
speaks of the worship of Asclepius in such a way as to XVIII. 2 a
imply any connexion with the ordinary art of healing. The two
systems appear to have existed side by side, but to have been
distinct, and if they were ever united it must have been before the
times of which we have any record. The theory of a development of
Greek medicine from the rites of Asclepius, though defended by
eminent names, must accordingly be rejected.
Development of Medicine in Greece
.^ In contrast, vaporizers do eliminate combustion products and address the Institute of Medicine’s 1999 recommendation for the development of non-smoking delivery systems for the medicinal use of marijuana.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government’s main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government's main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The elaborate collections made by Daremberg of medical
notices in the poets and historians illustrate the relations of the
profession to society, but do little to prepare us for the
Hippocratic period. Nor is much importance to be attached to the
influence of the philosophical sects on medicine except as regards
the school of
Pythagoras. That philosopher and several of
his successors were physicians, but we do not know in what relation
they stood to later medical schools. We must therefore hasten
onward to the age of
Pericles, in which Hippocrates, already called
"the Great," was in medicine as complete a representative of the
highest efforts of the Greek
intellect as were his contemporaries the
great philosophers, orators and tragedians. The medical art as we
now practise it, the character of the physician as we now
understand it, both date for us from Hippocrates. The
justification of
this statement is found in the literary collection of writings
known by his name. Of these certainly many are falsely ascribed to
the historical Hippocrates of
Cos;
others are almost as certainly rightly so ascribed; others again
are clearly works of his school, whether from his hand or not. But
which are to be regarded as the "genuine works" is still uncertain,
and authorities are conflicting. There are clearly two schools
represented in the collection - that of
Cnidus in a small proportion, and that of Cos in
far the larger number of the works. The latter was that to which
Hippocrates belonged, and where he gave instruction; and
accordingly it may be taken that works of this school, when not
obviously of a different date, are Hippocratic in doctrine if not
in actual authorship.
Hippocratic Medicine
The first grand characteristic of Hippocratic medicine is the
high conception of the duties and status of the physician, shown in
the celebrated "Oath of Hippocrates" and elsewhere - equally free
from the
mysticism of a
priesthood and the vulgar pretensions of a
mercenary craft.
.^ Approximately 100 times more effective than 2,4-dinitrophenol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Data suggests the presence of the epoxide renders this metabolite more active than cytochalasin D in inhibition of tumor cell growth in vitro.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ The second part of the resolution says that in states where patients are permitted to use medical marijuana for serious and/or chronic illnesses and the patient's physician has recommended its use in accordance with that state's medical practice standards, that patients should not be subject to federal criminal penalties for such appropriate medical use.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Currently, the only process that could result in marijuana becoming legal as a medicine under federal law is for privately-funded sponsors to conduct scientific research with the aim of obtaining FDA approval for its use as a prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Furthermore, he admitted that unlike normal peer-review processes, the PHS/NIDA peer review process is composed entirely of government employees, with no outside experts.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Gallimore B, Gagnon RF, Subang R, Richards GK. Natural history of chronic Staphylococcus epidermidis foreign body infection in a mouse model.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ In medicine, it may refer to a condition a person has or a medication a person is taking that is not being studied in the clinical trial he or she is taking part in.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The actual science of the Hippocratic school was of course very
limited.
.^ Despite the structural similarity to fostriecin, there is little comparative data to support a common mode of action.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
The most valuable intellectual possession was a large mass
of recorded observations in individual cases and epidemics of
disease.
.^ The substances in the mixture are separated based on how far they move through the material.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Though the Hippocratic medicine was so largely founded on
observation, it would be an error to suppose that
dogma or theory had no place. The dominating
theory of disease was the
humoral, which has never since
ceased to influence medical thought and practice.
.^ The system that contains the heart and the blood vessels and moves blood throughout the body.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ According to this type of medicine, the constitution is the specific way a person’s organs affect health and how he or she looks, thinks, behaves, and responds to treatment.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ It is taken up by cancer cells and breaks down into 5-fluorouracil, a substance that kills tumor cells.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Another Hippocratic doctrine, the influence of which is not even
yet exhausted, is that of the healing power of nature. Not that
Hippocrates taught, as he was afterwards reproached with teaching,
that nature is sufficient for the cure of diseases; for he held
strongly the efficacy of art.
.^ In traditional Chinese medicine, meridians are channels that form a network in the body, through which qi (vital energy) flows.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ And that’s just what is starting to happen (but not for the US drug industry or the patients these medicines might help).- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The times at which crises were to be expected were
naturally looked for with anxiety; and it was a cardinal point in
the Hippocratic system to foretell them with precision.
Hippocrates, influenced as is thought by the Pythagorean doctrines
of number, taught that they were to be expected on days fixed by
certain numerical rules, in some cases on
odd, in others on even numbers - the celebrated
doctrine of "critical days." This false precision can have had no
practical value, but may have enforced habits of minute
observation. It follows from what has been said that
prognosis, or the art
of foretelling the course and event of the
disease, was a
strong point with the Hippocratic physicians. In this they have
perhaps never been excelled.
.^ A system in which medical doctors and other healthcare professionals (such as nurses, pharmacists, and therapists) treat symptoms and diseases using drugs, radiation, or surgery.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The
pulse is not spoken of in any of
the works now attributed to Hippocrates himself, though it is
mentioned in other works of the collection.
.^ Continuous variables were assessed by the weighted mean difference (WMD) between the treatment group and the control group.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Cytokines can also be made in the laboratory by recombinant DNA technology and used in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ It is being studied in the prevention and treatment of some types of cancer and heart disease and in the relief of side effects caused by some cancer treatments.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Medicines were regarded as of
secondary importance, but not neglected, two hundred and sixty-five
drugs being mentioned at different places in the Hippocratic works.
Blood-letting
was known, but not greatly practised. The highest importance was
attached to applying all remedies at the right moment, and the
general principle enforced of making all influences - internal and
external - co-operate for the relief of the patient. The principles
of treatment just mentioned apply more especially to the cure of
acute diseases; but they are the most salient characteristics of
the Hippocratic school. In chronic cases diet, exercise and natural
methods were chiefly relied upon.
.^ A drug used to prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) after organ transplants.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Chemotherapy uses different drugs to kill or slow the growth of cancer cells; immunotherapy uses treatments to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
A treatise on the
diseases of women, contained in the Hippocratic collection, and of
remarkable practical v alue, is attributed to this school.
The above sketch of Hippocratic medicine will make it less
necessary to dwell upon the details relating to subsequent medical
schools or sects in ancient times.
.^ In addition, they expect they will eventually be given permission to sell marijuana to patients, though how much research will have to be conducted first remains to be determined.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Too much cholesterol in the blood may build up in blood vessel walls, block blood flow to tissues and organs, and increase the risk of developing heart disease and stroke.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ It kills cancer cells that may be in the brain and spinal cord, even though no cancer has been detected there.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Direct opponents or repudiators of the
authority of Hippocrates were rare, all generally appealing to his
authority. But, insensibly, the least valuable part of the
Hippocratic work, the theory, was made permanent; the most
valuable, the practical, neglected.
Post-Hippocratic Medicine
.^ For example, a chimeric antibody is made by joining antibody genes from two different species, such as human and mouse.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Research into alternative delivery methods such as vaporization was one of the primary recommendations of the Institute of Medicine's landmark 1999 report on medical marijuana .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ "By controlling who can research marijuana and how they can do it, the DEA has greatly limited promising research that could lead to [government] approved medications," Doblin said.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The New York Times published "Medicinal Marijuana On Trial" , discussing medical marijuana research and Ashcroft v.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
It
should also be remembered that he was of an Asclepiad family, and
received that partly
medical education which was
traditional in such families, and also himself is said to have
practised medicine as an
amateur.
.^ But Mr. Alden said only some kinds of marijuana worked - not the weak variety provided by the federal government, which he smoked during a research study.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A member of the clergy in charge of a chapel or who works with the military or with an institution, such as a hospital.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Cancer antigen 125 levels may also help monitor how well cancer treatments are working or if cancer has come back.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Among his encyclopaedic
writings were some on medical subjects, of which fragments only
have been preserved.
.^ An inherited disorder in which there is a lower-than-normal number of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell that is important in fighting infections).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Thienylnaphthamide compound that is a potent and ATP binding site-targeting inhibitor of JNK2 and JNK3 with little or no activity against JNK1, p38a, and a panel of more than 30 other kinases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Since there has still been no final negative action by DEA, it appears these letters may have had an impact.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The
fruit
of Aristotle's teaching and example was seen later on in the
schools of
Alexandria.
The century after the death of Hippocrates is a time almost
blank in medical annals. It is
probable that the science, like others, shared in the general
intellectual decline of Greece after the Macedonian supremacy; but
the works of physicians of the period are almost entirely lost, and
were so even in the time of Galen.
.^ They may occur in people of all ages, but are most common in the elderly.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Thienylnaphthamide compound that is a potent and ATP binding site-targeting inhibitor of JNK2 and JNK3 with little or no activity against JNK1, p38a, and a panel of more than 30 other kinases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A vanilloid analog 100-fold more potent than anandamide in producing hypothermia, analgesia, catalepsy and inhibiting spontaneous activity when administered to mice.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The Anderson Valley Advertiser has followed the details of the medical marijuana issue more closely than any other paper.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The Anderson Valley Advertiser has followed the details of the medical marijuana issue more closely than any other paper.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
It is
here that the real continuation and development of Hippocratic
medicine can be traced.
In one department the Alexandrian school rapidly surpassed its
Greek original - namely, in the study of anatomy.
.^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
There is no doubt that the organs were also examined by
opening the bodies of living persons - criminals condemned to death
being given over to the anatomists for this purpose.
Two eminent names stand in the first rank as leaders of the two
earliest schools of medicine which arose in Alexandria, Herophilus
and Erasistratus.
Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) was a Greek of
Chalcedon, a pupil of the schools both of Cos
and of Cnidus. He was especially noted for his profound researches
in anatomy (see i. 802), and in the knowledge and practice of
medicine he appears to have been equally renowned. He professed
himself a close adherent of Hippocrates, and adopted his theory of
the humours. He also made extensive use of drugs and of bleeding.
The reputation of Herophilus is attested by the fact that four
considerable physicians wrote works about him and his writings, and
he is further spoken of with the highest respect by Galen and
Celsus. By the general voice of
the medical world of antiquity he was placed only second to
Hippocrates.
Erasistratus (d. 280 B.C.) was the contemporary and rival of
Herophilus.
.^ It is linked to ATSM, which is taken up by tissues that have low levels of oxygen, such as some tumor tissues.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
His
numerous works are also almost entirely lost, fragments only being
preserved by Galen and others. Erasistratus, instead of following
Hippocrates as Herophilus did, depreciated him, and seems to have
been rather aggressive and independent in his views. He appears to
have leaned to mechanical explanations of the symptoms of disease,
as was especially the case with inflammation, of which he gave the
first rational, though necessarily inadequate, theory.
.^ Each vitamin E dose was divided into four doses on days one and two, and days seven and eight, respectively.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ PTSD symptoms will be assessed at four weeks, followed by a two week medication cessation period after the cannabis use has stopped, and a third 60-minute assessment of PTSD symptoms at six weeks.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The names of many prominent members of both
sects have been preserved, but it would be useless to repeat them.
The Herophilists still reverenced the memory of Hippocrates, and
wrote numerous commentaries on his works. They produced many
eminent anatomists, but in the end seem to have become lost in
theoretical subtleties, and to have maintained too high a standard
of literary cultivation.
.^ Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Crosses the blood-brain barrier more readily than cyclothiazide and diazoxide and is a more potent cognitive enhancing drug.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A system in which medical doctors and other healthcare professionals (such as nurses, pharmacists, and therapists) treat symptoms and diseases using drugs, radiation, or surgery.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
It was longer-lived than that of Herophilus, for
it still numbered many adherents in the 2nd century after
Christ, a century after the
latter had become extinct.
.^ Even if we lose, we win in some important ways.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ A coma may be caused by many things, including trauma, drugs, toxins, or certain diseases.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A water-soluble and odorless disulfide-reducing agent that is more stable and effective than DTT. TCEP reduces even the most stable water-soluble alkyl disulfides at pH 4.5 within 5 minutes.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
They professed that their whole practice was
based upon experience, to which word they gave a special meaning.
Three sources, and three only, could experience draw from:
observation, history (i.e. recorded observation), and judgment by
analogy. These three bases
of knowledge were known as the "
tripod" of the empirics. It should not, however,
be forgotten that the empirics'read and industriously commented on
the works of Hippocrates.
.^ Surgery in which a healthy blood vessel taken from another part of the body is used to make a new path for blood around a blocked artery leading to the heart.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A drug used to prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) after organ transplants.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Removal or destruction of the testicles or ovaries using radiation, surgery, or drugs.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
In the 2nd century the
school became closely connected with the philosophical
sect of the Sceptics, whose leader,
Sextus (200 B.C.), was an empirical physician. It lived and
flourished far beyond this time, when transplanted to
Rome, not less than in its native
Alexandria, and appears to be recognizable even up to the beginning
of
the middle
ages.
If we look at the work of the Alexandrian schools in medicine as
a whole, we must admit that the progress made was great and
permanent. The greatest service rendered to medicine was
undoubtedly the systematic study of anatomy. It is clear that the
knowledge of function (physiology) did not by any means keep
pace with the knowledge of structure,
and this was probably the reason why the important sect of the
empirics were able entirely to dispense with anatomical knowledge.
.^ A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Its actions are very similar to those of NG-hydroxy-L-arginine on the potentiation and stabilization of NO. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
We have now to trace the fortunes of this body of
medical doctrine and practice when transplanted to Rome, and
ultimately to the whole Roman world.
Roman Medicine
The
Romans cannot be said
to have at any time originated or possessed an independent school
of medicine.
.^ A system in which medical doctors and other healthcare professionals (such as nurses, pharmacists, and therapists) treat symptoms and diseases using drugs, radiation, or surgery.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The goal of comfort care is to prevent or treat as early as possible the symptoms of a disease, side effects caused by treatment of a disease, and psychological, social, and spiritual problems related to a disease or its treatment.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
When a
medical profession appears, it is, so far as we are able to trace
it, as an importation from Greece.
.^ Patients who died before four weeks (n=48) were excluded from all other outcomes.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ None of the other outcomes are reported for the 33 patients who died before 10 weeks.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Patients who died before 10 weeks of life (n = 33) were excluded from all other outcomes.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Decisions regarding phototherapy were made by staff physicians who were unaware of the study results.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Leukemia is a cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A slowly progressing cancer that starts in blood-forming tissues such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of white blood cells to be produced and enter the blood stream.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The bitter words
of M. Porcius Cato, who disliked them. as he did other
representatives of Greek culture, are evidence of this. The most
eminent of these earlier Greek physicians at Rome was
Asclepiades, the friend
of
Cicero (born 124 B.C. at
Prusa in
Bithynia). He
came to Rome as a young man, and soon became distinguished both for
his medical skill and his oratorical power. He introduced a system
which, so far as we know, was his own, though founded upon the
Epicurean philosophical creed; on the practical side it conformed
pretty closely to the Stoic rule of life, thus adapting itself to
the leanings of the better
stamp
of Romans in the later times of the republic. According to
Asclepiades all diseases depended upon alterations in the size,
number, arrangement or movement of the "atoms," of which, according
to the doctrine of
Epicurus, the body consisted. These atoms were
united into passages (
iropot) through which the juices of
the body were conveyed. This doctrine, of which the developments
need not further be followed, was important chiefly in so far that
it was perfectly distinct from, and opposed to, the humoral
pathology of Hippocrates.
.^ Any method that uses cold temperature to treat disease.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Cytokines can also be made in the laboratory by recombinant DNA technology and used in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A currently accepted and widely used treatment for a certain type of disease, based on the results of past research.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
He rejected the
vis medicatrix
naturae, pointing out that nature in many cases not only did
not help but marred the cure. His knowledge of disease and surgical
skill were, as appears from the accounts given by Celsus and
Caelius
Aurelianus, very considerable.
.^ After taking over two years to reply, HHS/NIDA's protocol reviewers didn't take the time to read the protocol carefully and made some rather basis mistakes in the review.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The New York Times published "Medicinal Marijuana On Trial" , discussing medical marijuana research and Ashcroft v.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The current population includes many infants who are more premature and smaller than the infants on whom the recommendations were based.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
This system was known as
methodism, its adherents as the methodici or
methodists. Its main principles were that it was useless to
consider the causes of a disease, or even the organ affected by the
disease, and that it was sufficient to know what was common to all
diseases, viz. their common qualities (communitates,
KocvorJr€s). Of these there were three possible forms -
(1) relaxation, (2) contraction of the minute passages or
ropoc, and (3) a mixed state, partly lax, partly
constricted.
.^ February 6, 2009: ASA gets 16 Members of the United States Congress to Sign a Letter to the Attorney General .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Information on chronic lung disease was available in 266 of 269 enrolled infants, while only 225 infants had an eye examination.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Under the direction of the Knesset (Israels legislative body), the Israeli Ministry of Health is considering allowing medical marijuana producers to sell marijuana to Ministry of Health approved patients.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The complication may be caused by the disease, procedure, or treatment or may be unrelated to them.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The goal of comfort care is to prevent or treat as early as possible the symptoms of a disease, side effects caused by treatment of a disease, and psychological, social, and spiritual problems related to a disease or its treatment.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
This simple rule of
treatment was the system or "method" from which the school took its
name.
The methodists agreed with the empirics in one point, in their
contempt for anatomy; but, strictly speaking, they were dogmatists,
though with a dogma different from that of the Hippocratic school.
Besides Themison, its systematic founder, the school boasted many
physicians eminent in their day, among whom Thessalus of
Tralles, a halfeducated and
boastful pretender, was one of the most popular. He reversed the
Hippocratic maxim "art is long," promising his scholars to teach
them the whole of medicine in six months, and had inscribed upon
his
tomb iaTpovLKc, 7 r,
as being superior to all living and bygone physicians.
In the and century a much greater name appears among the
methodists, that of
Soranus
of
Ephesus, a physician
mentioned with praise even by
Tertullian and
Augustine, who practised at Rome in the
reigns of
Trajan and
Hadrian. Soranus is known by a
work, still extant in the Greek original, on the diseases of women,
and also by the
Latin work of
Caelius Aurelianus, three centuries later, on acute and chronic
diseases, which is based upon, if not, as some think, an actual
translation of, the chief work of Soranus, and which is the
principal source of our knowledge of the methodic school. The work
on diseases of women is the only complete work on that subject
which has come down to us from antiquity, and shows remarkable
fullness of practical knowledge in relation to its subject.
.^ NCI studies show lack of activity against tumors and AIDS. An interesting metabolite which has received little attention in modern times.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
The work on acute and chronic diseases
is also full of practical knowledge, but penetrated with the
theories of the methodists.
The methodic school lasted certainly for some centuries, and
influenced the revival of medical science in the middle ages,
though overshadowed by the greater reputation of Galen.
.^ This is the sort of argument that was more persuasive up until about 10 years ago, before the FDA developed guidelines for the investigation of botanical medicines.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The Anderson Valley Advertiser has followed the details of the medical marijuana issue more closely than any other paper.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The manufacturer's recommendation is 1.5 ml/day for infants weighing less than 1 kg, 3.25 ml/day for those weighing 1 to 3 kg, and 5 ml/day for infants and children weighing 3 kg or more and up to 11 years of age.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The so-called pneumatic school was founded by
Athenaeus, in the 1st
century after Christ. According to its doctrines the normal as well
as diseased actions of the body were to be referred to the
operation of the pneuma or universal soul. This doctrine, crudely
transferred from philosophical
speculation, was intended to reconcile the
humoral (or Hippocratic) and solidist (or methodic) schools; but
the methodists seem to have claimed Athenaeus as one of
themselves.
.^ Nearly three decades later he led a team that identified the endocannabinoid anandamide , part of an endogenous cannabinoid system in the human nervous system.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Among these were found many of the most eminent physicians of
Graeco-Roman times. It may be sufficient to name Rufus or Ephesus
(2nd century A.D), and Archigenes (
fl. A.D. 90), who is
mentioned by
Juvenal.
.^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ At this point, one of the most telling moments in the entire hearing took place, the classic pregnant pause.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The hearings are now almost all over except for one additional witness who is scheduled to testify on January 17.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ According to a new study by Swiss researchers, teenagers who smoke marijuana but not tobacco appear to be more likely to get good grades, play sports and live with both parents than those who also use tobacco.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Whether he was a practising
physician or not has been a matter of controversy. The conclusion
supported by most evidence seems to be that he practised on his
friends and dependants, but not as a remunerative profession. His
well-known work,
De medicina, was one of a series of
treatises intended to embrace all knowledge proper for a man of the
world. It was not meant for the physicians, and was certainly
little read by them, as Celsus is quoted by no medical writer, and
when referred to by Pliny, is spoken of as an author not a
physician.
.^ The strength of this inference appears strong, based on a large number of randomized patients and no evidence of heterogeneity.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ There is no order too large or small for Metal Associates to process, so call today.
^ The strength of this inference appears strong, based on a large number of randomized patients (> 1000) and no evidence of heterogeneity.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ There have been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facilities since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ As far as we can tell, there has been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facility since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Public Health, Massachusetts Senators Kerry and Kennedy, 38 members of the US House of Representatives, and the California and Texas State Medical Associations, the two largest US state medical associations.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ He also said researchers believe that if they can perfect a method of "vaporizing" marijuana -- allowing it to be inhaled rather than smoked -- it would be easier to administer as medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ There seems to be no appeal process at all in the PHS/NIDA review of medical marijuana research proposals and there are certainly no deadlines that compel PHS/NIDA to respond within any reasonable period of time.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ The article, with multiple graphics, was the lead article in the Ideas section which most everyone reads since it contains the editorials, the op-eds and other feature articles.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ At this point, one of the most telling moments in the entire hearing took place, the classic pregnant pause.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ It has now been almost one year since the DEA rejected the recommended ruling of their own Administrative Law Judge Mary Ellen Bittner.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Of Pliny, another encyclopaedic writer, a few words must be
said, though he was not a physician. In his
Natural
History we find as complete a summary of the popular medicine
of his time as Celsus gives of the scientific medicine.
.^ B. Bakalar of Harvard Medical School, authors of Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine For information about California State-funded medical marijuana research projects, coordinated by the Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research (CMCR), look here.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ "The use of controlled substances for legitimate research purposes is well-established, and has yielded a number of miracle medicines widely available to patients and doctors," Norquist wrote.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Lester Grinspoon wrote an excellent paper, "The History of Cannabis as Medicine" for the DEA Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) hearing starting August 22, 2005.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Like Celsus, he had little influence
on succeeding medical literature or practice.
.^ Patients who died before four weeks (n=48) were excluded from all other outcomes.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The duration of vitamin E supplementation was up to one week in eleven studies and greater than one week in all patients in thirteen studies.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The hearings are now almost all over except for one additional witness who is scheduled to testify on January 17.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Galen was a man furnished with all the
anatomical, medical and philosophical knowledge of his
time; he had studied all kinds of natural
curiosities, and had stood in near relation to important political
events; he possessed enormous industry, great practical sagacity
and unbounded literary fluency. He had, in fact, every quality
necessary for an encyclopaedic writer, or even for a literary and
professional autocrat. He found the medical profession of his time
split up into a number of sects, medical science confounded under a
multitude of dogmatic systems, the social status and moral
integrity of physicians degraded. He appears. to have made it his
object to reform these evils, to reconcile scientific acquirements
and practical skill, to bring back the unity of medicine as it had
been understood by Hippocrates, and at the same time to raise the
dignity of medical practitioners.
Galen was as devoted to anatomical and, so far as then
understood, physiological research as to practical medicine.
.^ Nishida 1986 {published data only} Nishida A, Togari H. Effect of vitamin E administration on alpha-tocopherol concentrations in the retina, choroid and vitreous body of human neonates.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The first led him
into a teleological system so minute and overstrained as to defeat
its own end; the second was successfully attained by giving greater
precision and certainty to medical and surgical practice in
difficult cases. His general physiology was essentially founded
upon the Hippocratic theory of the four elements, with which he
combined the notion of spirit (pneuma) penetrating all parts, and
mingled with the humours in different proportions. It was on this
field that he most vehemently attacked the prevailing atomistic and
materialistic views of the methodic school, and his conception of
the pneuma became in some respects half metaphysical. His own
researches in special branches of physiology were important, but do
not strictly belong to our present subject.
The application of physiology to the explanation of diseases,
and thus to practice, was chiefly by the theory of the temperaments
or mixtures which Galen founded upon the Hippocratic doctrine of
humours, but developed with marvellous and fatal ingenuity. The
normal condition or temperament of the body depended upon a proper
mixture or proportion of the four elements - hot, cold, wet and
dry. From faulty proportions of the same arose the
intemperies
(" distempers"), which, though not diseases, were the
occasions of disease. Equal importance attached to faulty mixtures
or dyscrasiae of the blood. By a combination of these morbid
predispositions with the action of deleterious influences from
without all diseases were produced. Galen showed extreme ingenuity
in explaining all symptoms and all diseases on his system.
.^ A stable NO-amine complex that can spontaneously release two equivalents of NO in solution under physiological conditions without any cofactor.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
And, though it was precisely
in his fine-spun subtlety that he departed furthest from scientific
method and practical utility, it was this very quality which seems
in the end to have secured his popularity and established his
pre-
eminence in the
medical world.
.^ A drug used to help people stop smoking by acting the same way nicotine acts in the brain.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
In drugs were to be recognized the same elementary
qualities - hot, cold, moist, dry, &c. - as in the human body;
and, on the principle of curing by contraries, the use of one or
other was indicated.
.^ Less potent Na + /K + -ATPase inhibitor than other bufadienolides.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Currently, the Israeli government has only given Golan, and several other producers, permission to give away the medicine they grow, but not to sell it.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ It is also being studied in the treatment of several other types of cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
But there is enough to
show the thoroughness and extent of his practical knowledge.
.^ Complete follow-up: no; incomplete data provided on babies who died before 10 days of age.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
But the reputation of Galen grew slowly; he
does not appear to have enjoyed any pre-eminence over other
physicians of his time, to most of whom he was strongly opposed in
opinion. In the next generation he began to be esteemed only as a
philosopher; gradually his system was implicitly accepted, and it
enjoyed a great though not exclusive predominance till the fall of
Roman civilization.
.^ The demand for limiting business power springs more often from those who feel themselves at a disadvantage in interbusiness transactions than it does from households ...- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Potent and highly κ/μ selective κ-opioid receptor agonist (25 times more potent than morphine).- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ The manufacturer's recommendation is 1.5 ml/day for infants weighing less than 1 kg, 3.25 ml/day for those weighing 1 to 3 kg, and 5 ml/day for infants and children weighing 3 kg or more and up to 11 years of age.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Through the Arabs the Galenical
system found its way back again to western
Europe.
.^ "The question of whether marijuana has any legitimate medical purpose should be determined by sound science and medicine," DEA Administrator Asa Hutchinson said in a statement.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The facility will be directed by an Israeli medical marijuana advocate, and has been authorized by the Israeli Ministry of Health to provide marijuana only to medical marijuana patients formally approved by the Ministry.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The history of medicine in Roman times is by no means the same
thing as the history of the fate of the works of Galen. For some
centuries the methodic school was popular at Rome, and produced one
physician, Caelius Aurelianus, who must be pronounced, next to
Celsus, the most considerable of the Latin medical writers. His
date was in all probability the end of the 4th or the beginning of
the 5th century.
.^ "By controlling who can research marijuana and how they can do it, the DEA has greatly limited promising research that could lead to [government] approved medications," Doblin said.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Yohai Golan has estimated that the value of the marijuana that they will give away is roughly $6 million per year, based on prices for legal Dutch medical marijuana and prices for medical marijuana in the US. .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Yet more evidence that the Bush Administration is actively working to obstruct medical marijuana research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The
popularity of Caelius is evidenced by the fact that in the 6th
century an abridgment of his larger work was recommended by
Cassiodorus to the
Benedictine monks for the study of
medicine.
Before quitting this period the name of
Aretaeus of
Cappadocia must be mentioned.
.^ There is nothing in the inventory with a CBD content more than about half of what the Dutch government is offering, and only small amounts of high-THC content marijuana, which have even lower amounts of CBD. There is nothing comparable to a strain offered by the Dutch government, containing 18% THC and 0.8% CBD. .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The Anderson Valley Advertiser has followed the details of the medical marijuana issue more closely than any other paper.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ A person with celiac disease may become malnourished no matter how much food is consumed.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ No exclusion criteria were used before randomization; however, patients randomized before delivery and found after birth to have lethal malformations were excluded from the study.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Alexander of Aphrodisias, who
lived and wrote at
Athens in
the time of Septimius
Severus, is best known by his commentaries on
Aristotle, but also wrote a treatise on fevers, still extant.
Ancient Medicine after Galen
The Byzantine school of medicine, which closely corresponds to
the Byzantine literary and historical schools, followed closely in
Galen's footsteps, and its writers were chiefly compilers and
encyclopaedists. The earliest is Oribasius (326-403), whose date
and position are fixed by his being the friend and court physician
of
Julian the Apostate. He was
a Greek of Pergamum, educated in Alexandria, and long resident in
Byzantium.
.^ For information about GW Pharmaceutical Company research into the medical uses of marijuana extracts, see their website .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Most data are available only for the 99 infants who completed the trial, i.e., survived for at least one month.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ But researchers who want marijuana have only one legal source: a crop grown in Mississippi and dispensed by the National Institute on Drug Abuse.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The work is thus one of great historical
value but of no originality.
.^ Complete follow-up: no; incomplete information on three patients who died.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Complete follow-up: no; incomplete data provided on babies who died before 10 days of age.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Complete follow-up: no; data reported on the 44 infants who completed the 3-day schedule of vitamin E. Blinding of outcome: no.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
A higher rank
among medical writers is assigned to
Alexander
of Tralles (525-605), whose doctrine was that of an eclectic.
His practical and therapeutical rules are evidently the fruit of
his own experience, though it would be difficult to attribute to
him any decided advance in medical knowledge. But the most
prominent figure in Byzantine medicine is that of
Paul of
Aegina (Paulus Aegineta), who lived probably in
the early part of the 7th century. His skill, especially in
surgery, must have been considerable, and his '
Ia. rpucci
gives a very complete picture of the achievements of the
Greeks
i n this department. Another work, on obstetrics,
now lost, was equally famous, and procured for him, among the
Arabs, the name of "the Obstetrician."
.^ Entry criteria: birth weight equal to or less than 1000 g, postnatal age equal to or less than 24 hours, informed consent.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Entry criteria: gestational age less than 37 weeks and birth weight less than 1751 g.- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Preterm infants (gestational age less than 37 weeks).- Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortalityin preterm infants 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nichd.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
In this respect Paulus is a most important
influence in the development of medicine.
.^ To receive the award, one goal of the cancer center must be to turn clinical and basic research into better health care.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Towards this end, MAPS is working with David Ostrow, M.D., who is funded by the Marijuana Policy Project (MPP), to lobby the American Medical Association (AMA) to pass a two-fold resolution at this November's annual meeting.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The work of the last has some independent merit;
but all are interesting as showing a
fusion of Greek and Arabian medicine, the latter
having begun to exercise even in the 11th century a reflex
influence on the schools of Byzantium. Something was borrowed even
from the school of
Salerno,
and thus the close of Byzantine medicine is brought into connexion
with the
dawn of science
in modern
Europe.
In the West the period after Galen affords little evidence of
anything but a gradual though unvarying decline in Roman medicine.
Caelius Aurelianus, already referred to as the follower of Soranus,
must be mentioned as showing the persistence of the methodic
school. An abridgment of one of his writings, with the title of
Aurelius, became the most popular of all Latin medical
works. As a writer he was worthy of a better period of medical
literature.
.^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ In these turbulent times, it does seem within our reach for us to mobilize sufficient pressure on DEA to force the acceptance of a favorable recommendation.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Certain compilations still extant
bear the falsely-assumed names of
eminent writers, such as Pliny and Hippocrates. A writer with the
(perhaps assumed) name of Apuleius Platonicus produced a herbal
which held its ground till the 15th century at least, and was in
the 9th translated into Anglo-Saxon. These poor compilations,
together with Latin translations of certain works of Galen and
Hippocrates, formed a medical literature, meagre and unprogressive
indeed, but of which a great part survived through the middle ages
till the discovery of
printing and revival of learning.
.^ Because Pifithrin-m targets only the mitochondrial branch of the p53 pathway without affecting the important transcriptional functions of p53, it is superior to Pifithrin-a in in vivo studies.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Arabian Medicine
The rise of the Mahommedan Empire, which influenced Europe so
deeply both politically and intellectually, made its
mark also in the history of medicine.
As in the parallel case of the Roman conquest of Greece, the
superior culture of the conquered race asserted its supremacy over
their Arab conquerors. After the Mahommedan conquests became
consolidated, and learning began to flourish, schools of medicine,
often connected with hospitals and schools of
pharmacy, arose in all the chief seats of
Moslem power. At
Damascus
Greek medicine was zealously cultivated with the aid of Jewish and
Christian teachers.
.^ Yet more evidence that the Bush Administration is actively working to obstruct medical marijuana research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The names of Mesua, or Yalhya ibn Masawaih
(d. A.D. 857-858), celebrated for his knowledge of drugs, and
Honein
ibn Ishaq el
`Ibadi (d. 873) or Joannitius, the translator and commentator of
Hippocrates and Galen, belong to this period. Certain writings of
Joannitius, translated into Latin, were popular in the middle ages
in Europe, and were printed in the 16th century. At the same time
the Arabs became acquainted with Indian medicine, and Indian
physicians lived at the court of Bagdad. The Islamite rulers in
Spain were not long behind those of
the East in encouraging learning and medical science, and developed
culture to a still higher degree of perfection. In that country
much was due to the
Jews, who had
already established schools in places which were afterwards the
seats of Moslem dominion. From the 10th to the 13th century was the
brilliant period of Arabian medicine in Spain.1 The classical
period of Arabian medicine begins with Rhazes (Abu Bakr Muhammad
ibn Zakariya el-Razi, A.D. 925-926), a native of Rai in the
province of Dailam (Persia), who practised with distinction at
Bagdad; he followed the doctrines of Galen, but learnt much from
Hippocrates. He was the first of the Arabs to treat medicine in a
comprehensive and encyclopaedic, manner, surpassing probably in
voluminousness Galen himself, though but a small proportion of his
works are extant. Rhazes is deservedly remembered as having first
described small-pox and
measles in an accurate manner.
.^ Approximately 100 times more effective than 2,4-dinitrophenol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Cancer cells take up more C-11 choline than normal cells, so the pictures can be used to find cancer cells in the body.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Other 1 See Dozy,
Cat. Cod. Or. Lug. Bat. ii. 296.
writers of this century need not be mentioned here; but the
next, the 11th century, is given as the probable though uncertain
date of a writer who had a great influence on European medicine,
Mesua the younger of Damascus, whose
personality is obscure, and of whose very
existence some historians have doubted, thinking that the name was
assumed by some medieval Latin writer. The work
De
simplicibus, which bears his name, was for centuries a
standard authority on what would now be called materia medica, was
printed in twenty-six editions in the 15th century and later, and
was used in the formation of the first
London pharmacopoeia, issued by the College of
Physicians in the reign of
James
I. Either to the 10th or the 11th century must be referred the
name of another Arabian physician who has also attained the
position of a classic, Abu'l Qasiin or Abulcasis, of El-Zahra, near
Cordova, in Spain. His great
work,
Altasrif, a medical encyclopaedia, is chiefly valued
for its surgical portion (already mentioned), which was translated
into Latin in the 16th century, and was for some centuries a
standard if not the standard authority on surgery in Europe. Among
his own countrymen the fame and position of Abulcasis were soon
eclipsed by the greater name of Avicenna.
Avicenna has always been regarded as the chief representative of
Arabian medicine. He wrote on
philosophy also, and in both subjects
acquired the highest reputation through the whole of eastern
Islam. In Mahommedan Spain he was
lees regarded, but in Europe his works even eclipsed and superseded
those of Hippocrates and Galen. His style and expository power are
highly praised, but the subject-matter shows little originality.
The work by which he is chiefly known, the celebrated "
canon," is an encyclopaedia of
medical and surgical knowledge, founded upon Galen, Aristotle, the
later Greek physicians, and the earlier Arabian writers, singularly
complete and systematic, but is thought not to show the practical
experience of its author.
.^ In any case, there is no alternative supplier with a DEA license and starting a new facility would take a substantial amount of time, easily a year or more, with these time lags being very costly after investing millions in research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ After this happens several times, the first signal alone can cause the response that would usually need the second signal.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Our national medical system relies on proven scientific research, not popular opinion."- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
In the long list of Arabian medical writers none can here be
mentioned except the great names of the Hispano-Moorish school, a
school both philosophically and medically antagonistic to that of
Avicenna. Of these the earliest is
Avenzoar or Abumeron, that is, Abu Merwan `Abd
al-
Malik Ibn
Zuhr (beginning of 12th century), a member of a family which gave
several distinguished members to the medical profession. His chief
work,
Al-Teysir (facilitatio), is thought to show more
practical experience than the writings of Avicenna, and to be less
based upon dialectical subtleties.
.^ Voth's main point was that marijuana has so many ingredients that it can't possibly be made into a medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Salt form of okadaic acid, with slightly greater stability than the free acid after it is put into stock solution (in organic solvents).- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A synthetic form of marijuana's active ingredient has been made into a prescription drug, Marinol.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
His friend and pupil
AvERROES of Cordova (q.v.), so well known for
his philosophical writings, was also an author in medical subjects,
and as such widely read in Latin. The famous
Rabbi Maimonides (A.D. 1135-1201) (q.v.) closes
for us the roll of medical writers of the Arabian school.
.^ But Mr. Alden said only some kinds of marijuana worked - not the weak variety provided by the federal government, which he smoked during a research study.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
But, so far as is known, the independent and rationalistic spirit
which the two last-named writers showed in philosophy did not
lead them to take any original point
of view in medicine.
The works of the Arabian medical writers who have now been
mentioned form a very small fraction of the existing literature.
.^ When you enter three or more characters, a list of up to 10 suggestions will popup under the textbox.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
It is thus evident that the
circumstance of having been translated (which may have been in some
cases almost an accident) is what has chiefly determined the
influence of particular writers on Western medicine. But it is
improbable that further research will alter the general estimate of
the value of Arabian medicine.
.^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government’s main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government's main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Doblin said there are potentially many other medicinal uses of marijuana, including the treatment of multiple sclerosis and AIDS-related neuropathy.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The greater part is taken from Hippocrates,
Galen, Dioscorides and later Greek writers.
.^ Research into alternative delivery methods such as vaporization was one of the primary recommendations of the Institute of Medicine's landmark 1999 report on medical marijuana .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
In anatomy and physiology the Arabians distinctly went
back; in surgery they showed no advance upon the Greeks; in
practical medicine nothing new can be traced, except the
description of certain diseases (e.g. small-pox and measles)
unknown or imperfectly known to the
.^ It is also used together with other drugs to treat advanced, metastatic, or recurrent non-small cell lung cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A drug that is used to treat advanced ovarian cancer that has never been treated or symptoms of ovarian cancer that has come back after treatment with other anticancer drugs.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A drug used to treat advanced renal cell carcinoma (a type of kidney cancer).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
By their
relations with the farther East, the Arabs became acquainted with
valuable new remedies which have held their ground till modern
times; and their skill in
chemistry enabled them to prepare new
chemical remedies, and form many combinations of those already in
use. They produced the first pharmacopoeia, and established the
first apothecaries' shops. Many of the names and many forms of medi
cines now used, and in fact the general outline of modern pharmacy,
except so far as modified by modern chemistry, started with the
Arabs. Thus does Arabian medicine appear as judged from a modern
standpoint; but to medieval Europe, when little but a tradition
remained of the great ancient schools, it was invested with a far
higher degree of originality and importance.
.^ DEA's rationale is not stated but it seems that they now consider the research to be publicly funded, which requires a "Research" license.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
This
we may call the pre-Arabian or Salernitan period.
Medicine in the Early Middle Ages: School of Salerno
.^ There have been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facilities since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ As far as we can tell, there has been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facility since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
A
continuous
thread of learning
and practice must have connected the last period of Roman medicine
already mentioned with the dawn of science in the middle ages. But
the intellectual thread is naturally traced with greater difficulty
than that which is the theme of civil history; and in periods such
as that from the 5th to the 10th century in Europe it is almost
lost. The chief homes of medical as of other learning in these
disturbed times were the monasteries. Though the science was
certainly not advanced by their labours, it was saved from total
oblivion, and many ancient medical works were preserved either in
Latin or
vernacular
versions. The Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms 1 of the 11th century,
published in the Rolls series of medieval chronicles and memorials,
admirably illustrate the mixture of
magic and superstition with the
relics of ancient science which constituted
monastic medicine. Similar works, in Latin or other languages,
exist in manuscript in all the great European
libraries.
.^ The studies will be the first to emerge out of the university’s Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research (CMCR), a program created by the state Legislature in 1999.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The study of Hippocrates, Galen, and
other classics was recommended by Cassiodorus (6th century), and in
the original mother-
abbey of
Monte Cassino
medicine was studied; but there was not there what could be called
a medical school; nor had this foundation any connexion (as has
been supposed) with the famous school of Salerno.
The origin of this, the most important source of medical
knowledge in Europe in the early middle ages, is involved in
obscurity. It is known that Salerno, a Roman
colony, in a situation noted in ancient times
for its salubrity, was in the 6th century at least the seat of a
bishopric, and at the end of the 7th century of a Benedictine
monastery, and that some of the prelates and higher clergy were
distinguished for learning, and even for medical acquirements. But
it has by recent researches been clearly established that the
celebrated
Schola salernitana was a purely secular
institution. All that can with certainty be said is that a school
or collection of schools gradually grew up in which especially
medicine, but also, in a subordinate degree, law and philosophy
were taught. In the 9th century Salernitan physicians were already
spoken of, and the city was known as
Civitas hippocratica.
A little later we find great and royal personages resorting to
Salerno for the restoration of their health, among whom was William
of
Normandy, afterwards
the Conqueror. The number of students of medicine must at one time
have been considerable, and in a corresponding degree the number of
teachers. Among the latter many were married, and their wives and
daughters appear also in the lists of professors. The most noted
female professor was the celebrated Trotula in the 11th century.
The Jewish element appears to have' been important among the
students, and possibly among the professors. The reputation of the
school was great till the 12th or 13th century, when the
introduction of the Arab medicine was gradually fatal to it. The
foundation of the university of
Naples, and the rise of
Montpellier, also contributed to its
decline.
The teachings of the Salernitan doctors are pretty well known.
through existing works, some of which have only recently been
discovered and published. The best-known is the rhyming Latin poem
on health by Joannes de Meditano,
Regimen sanitatis
Salerni, professedly written for the use of the "king of
England," supposed to mean
William the Conqueror; it had an immense reputation in the middle
ages, and was afterwards many times printed, and translated into
most European languages. This was a popular work intended for the
laity; but there are others strictly professional.
1 Derived from the Anglo-Saxon laece, a physician, and
dom, a law.
Among the writers it may be sufficient to mention here
Gariopontus; Copho, who wrote the
Anatome porci, a
well-known medieval book; Joannes Platearius, first of a family of
physicians bearing the same name, whose
Practica, or
medical compendium, was afterwards several times printed; and
Trotula, believed to be the wife of the last-named. All of these
fall into the first period before the
advent of Arabian medicine. In the transitional
period, when the Arabian school began to influence European
medicine, but before the Salernitans were superseded, comes
Nicolaus Praepositus, who wrote the
Antidotarium, a
collection of formulae for compound medicines, which became the
standard work on the subject, and the foundation of many later
compilations. An equally popular writer was Gilles de
Corbeil (Aegidius
Corboliensis), at one time a teacher at Salerno, afterwards court
physician to
Philip Augustus
of
France, who composed
several poems in Latin hexameters on medical subjects. Two of them,
on the urine and the pulse respectively, attained the position of
medical classics.
None of these Salernitan works rise much above the rank of
compilations, being founded on Hippocrates, Galen and later Greek
writers, with an unmistakable mixture of the doctrines of the
methodists. But they often show much practical experience, and
exhibit the naturalistic method of the Hippocratic school.
.^ Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A drug used to treat high blood pressure that is also being studied in the prevention of side effects caused by radiation therapy used in the treatment of cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A drug used in the treatment of hypercalcemia (abnormally high levels of calcium in the blood) and cancer that has spread to the bone (bone metastases).- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Anatomy was as little regarded as it was in
the later ancient schools, the empiric and methodic, but
demonstrations of the parts of the body were given on
swine.
.^ In other words, because supplies are provided at cost, there is no lack of competition, since, according to Mr. Strait, the words used in the Code of Federal Regulations "all seem to be geared around the economics."- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ There have been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facilities since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ There is a carotid artery on each side of the neck, and each one splits into two branches.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Potent FP agonist, more potent (2- to 3-fold) than fluprostenol but less selective.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Though the
glory of Salerno had departed, the school
actually existed till it was finally dissolved by an
edict of the
emperor Napoleon I. in the year 1811.
Introduction of Arabian Medicine: The Scholastic Period
About the middle of the 11th century the Arabian medical
writers began to be known by Latin translations in the Western
world. Constantinus Africanus, a monk, was the author of the earliest of such
versions (A.D. roso); his labours were directed chiefly to the less
important and less bulky Arabian authors, of whom Haly was the most
noted; the real classics were not introduced till later. .^ It can also be made in the laboratory, and is added to some soft drinks, foods, and medicines.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
Jewish scholars, often under the patronage of
Christian bishops, were
especially active in the work. In Sicily also the Oriental tendencies of Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II. worked
in the same direction. Gerard of Cremona, a physician of
Toledo (1114-1187), made translations, it is said by command of Barbarossa, from Avicenna
and others. It is needless to point out the influence of the crusades in making Eastern
ideas known in the Western world. The influence of Arabian medicine
soon began to be felt even in the Hippocratic city of Salerno, and
in the r3th century is said to have held an even balance with the
older medicine. .^ The New York Times published "Medicinal Marijuana On Trial" , discussing medical marijuana research and Ashcroft v.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The Perspective Section of the New England Journal of Medicine published an article, "Medical Marijuana and the Supreme Court," by Susan Oakie, MD, a contributing editor of the Journal.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
That this movement coincided with the establishment of some
of the older European universities is well known. The history of
medicine in the period now opening is closely combined with the
history of scholastic philosophy. Both were infected with the same
dialectical subtlety, which was, from the nature of the subject,
especially injurious to medicine.
.^ Occurring or existing at the same time as something else.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Denial of a license to the University of Massachusetts to produce marijuana for lawful scientific and medical purposes is contrary to both the spirit of 21 U.S.C. 823(a)(1) and to sound public policy.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Commentary in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), by Dean Lawrence Gostin, Georgetown Law School, criticizes NIDA for blocking medical marijuana research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The medical school
owed its foundation largely to Jewish teachers, themselves educated
in the Moorish schools of Spain, and imbued with the intellectual
independence of the Averroists. Its rising prosperity coincided
with the decline of the school of Salerno. Montpellier became
distinguished for the practical and empirical spirit of its
medicine, as contrasted with the dogmatic and scholastic teaching
of
Paris and other universities.
.^ A validation study is more appropriate for developing the Volcano vaporizer as a medical device, a task best left to the manufacturer of that vaporizer.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ In medicine, it may refer to a condition a person has or a medication a person is taking that is not being studied in the clinical trial he or she is taking part in.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A validation study is more appropriate for developing the Volcano vaporizer as an FDA-approved medical device, which MAPS isnt seeking to do.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The northern
universities contributed little - the reputation even of Paris
being of later growth.
.^ PHS/NIDA's handling of the original version of this protocol was another classic case of the dysfunctional nature of NIDA's monopoly on research-grade marijuana.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ In medicine, it may refer to a condition a person has or a medication a person is taking that is not being studied in the clinical trial he or she is taking part in.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
The medical writers of this
period, who chiefly drew from Arabian sources, have been called
Arabists (though it is difficult to give any clear meaning to this
term), and were afterwards known as the neoterics.
.^ Less potent Na + /K + -ATPase inhibitor than other bufadienolides.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Among
these may be mentioned the
Conciliator of
Peter of Abano (1250-1315), the
Aggregator of
Jacob de
Dondi (1298-1359), both of the school of Padua, and the
Pandectae medicinae of the Salernitan Matthaeus Sylvaticus
(d. 1342), a sort of medical glossary and dictionary. But for us
the most interesting fact is the first appearance of Englishmen as
authors of medical works having a European reputation,
distinguished, according to the testimony of Haser, by a practical
tendency characteristic - of the British race, and fostered in the
school of Montpellier.
The first of these works is the
Compendium medicinae,
also called
Laurea or
Rosa anglicana, of Gilbert
(Gilbertus Anglicus, about 1290), said to contain good observations
on
leprosy. A more important
work, the
Practica seu lilium medicinae, of Bernard
Gordon, a Scottish professor at
Montpellier (written in the year 1307), was more widely spread,
being translated into French and Hebrew, and printed in several
editions. Of these two physicians the first probably, the latter
certainly, was educated and practised abroad, but John Gaddesden
(1280?-1361), the author of
Rosa anglica seu Practica
medicinae (between 1305 and 1317), was a
graduate in medicine of Merton College,
Oxford, and court physician. His
compendium is entirely wanting in originality, and perhaps
unusually destitute of common sense, but it became so popular as to
be reprinted up to the end of the 16th century. Works of this kind
became still more abundant in the 14th and in the first half of the
15th century, till the wider distribution of the medical classics
in the original put them out of fashion.
.^ The demand for limiting business power springs more often from those who feel themselves at a disadvantage in interbusiness transactions than it does from households ...- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ As far as we can tell, there has been no US-based privately-funded marijuana production facility since 1942, when marijuana was removed from the US Pharmacopoeia and its medical use was prohibited.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The big question is whether the FDA will want more data than MAPS and California NORML have already gathered on the Volcano ( www.vapormed.de ) or will accept the data we have already submitted, which is more than FDA has about what is in marijuana smoke post-combustion.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
In anatomy also the beginning of a new epoch
was made by Mondino de Liucci or Mundinus (1275-1326), and his
followers. The medical writings of Arnald de
Villanova (
c. 1235-1313) (if the
Breviarium practicae be rightly ascribed to him) rise
above the rank of compilations.
.^ Research into alternative delivery methods such as vaporization was one of the primary recommendations of the Institute of Medicine's landmark 1999 report on medical marijuana .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The San Francisco Chronicle reports that "Medical Marijuana Advocates Likely to Get Break Under Kerry" .- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Collections of
consilia were
published, among others, by Gentilis Fulgineus before 1348, by
Bartolomeo Montagnana (d. 1470), and by Baverius de Baveriis of
Imola (about 1450). The last-named
contains much that is interesting and readable.
Period of the Revival of Learning
The impulse which all departments of intellectual activity
received from the revival of
Greek literature in Europe was felt by
medicine among the rest. Not that the spirit of the science, or of
its corresponding practice, was at once changed.
.^ Yet more evidence that the Bush Administration is actively working to obstruct medical marijuana research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ There will need to be more work done to persuade the Ministry of Health that selling the medicine to patients is an appropriate course of action.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The classical works, though still regarded
with unreasoning reverence, were found to have a germinative and
vivifying power that carried the mind out of the region of dogma,
and prepared the way for the scientific movement which has been
growing in strength up to our own day.
.^ The studies will be the first to emerge out of the university’s Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research (CMCR), a program created by the state Legislature in 1999.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The former brought with it necessarily a more accurate
conception of physiology, and thus led up to the great discovery of
Harvey, which was the
turningpoint in modern medicine.
.^ Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ It is also used together with other drugs to treat advanced, metastatic, or recurrent non-small cell lung cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ It is also used to treat metastatic breast cancer that has not improved after treatment with certain other anticancer drugs.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
At the same time, the
discovery of
America, and
increased intercourse with the East, by introducing a variety of
new plants, greatly accelerated the progress both of botany and
pharmacology.
But it was not in these directions that improvement was first
looked for. It was at first very naturally imagined that the simple
revival of classical and especially of Greek literature would at
once produce the same brilliant results in medicine as in
literature and philosophy.
.^ Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A condition lasting for more than 6 months in which a person feels tired most of the time and may have trouble concentrating and carrying out daily activities.- Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute 10 February 2010 12:52 UTC www.cancer.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ He also said researchers believe that if they can perfect a method of "vaporizing" marijuana -- allowing it to be inhaled rather than smoked -- it would be easier to administer as medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
From both
fields they hoped to expel the evils which were summed up in the
word barbarism. Nearly all medieval medical literature was
condemned under this name; and for it the humanists proposed to
substitute the originals of Hippocrates and Galen, thus leading
back medicine to its
fountain-head. Since a knowledge of Greek was
still confined to a small body of scholars, and a still smaller
proportion of physicians, the first task was to translate the Greek
classics into Latin. To this work several learned physicians,
chiefly Italians, applied themselves with great ardour. Among the
earliest were Nicolaus Leonicenus of
Vicenza (1428-1524), Giovanni de Monte or
Montanus (1498-1552), and many others in Italy. In northern Europe
should be mentioned Gulielmus Copus (1471-1532) and Gunther of
Andernach (1487-1584),
better known as Guinterius Andernacensis, both for a time
professors at Paris; and, among the greatest, Thomas
Linacre (about 1460-1524; see
Linacre). A little later
Janus
Cornarius or Hagenbut (150o-1558) and
Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566) in
Germany, and
John
Kaye of
Caius (1510-1572) in
England, carried on the work. Symphorien Champier (Champerius or
Campegius) of
Lyons (1472-1539),
a contemporary of Rabelais, and the patron of Servetus, wrote with
fantastic enthusiasm on the superiority of the Greek to the Arabian
physicians, and possibly did something to enlist in the same cause
the two far greater men just mentioned. Rabelais not only lectured
on Galen and Hippocrates, but edited some works of the latter; and
Michael
Servetus (1511-1553), in a little tract
Syruporum universa
ratio, defended the practice of Galen as compared with that of
the Arabians. The great
Aldine Press made an important
contribution to the work, by
editiones principes of
Hippocrates and Galen in the original. Thus was the campaign opened
against the medieval and Arabian writers, till finally Greek
medicine assumed a predominant position, and Galen took the place
of Avicenna. The result was recorded in a formal manner by the
Florentine Academy, sometime shortly before 1 535: "Quae, excusso.
Arabicae et barbarae servitutis medicae jugo, ex professo se
Galenicam appellavit et profligato barbarorum exercitu unum totum
et solum Galenum, ut optimum artis medicae authorem, in
omnibus se sequuturam pollicita
est." Janus Cornarius, from whom this is quoted, laments, however,
that the Arabians still reigned in most of the schools of medicine,
and that the
Italian and
French authors of works called
Practica were still in high
repute. The triumph of Galenism was therefore not complete by the
middle of the 16th century. It was probably most so, and earliest,
in the schools of Italy and in those of England, where the London
College of Physicians might be regarded as an offshoot of the
Italian schools.
.^ The hearings are now almost all over except for one additional witness who is scheduled to testify on January 17.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Selective inhibitor of BTK. Inhibits the catalytic activity of BTK as well as the interaction between BTK and PKCβII, in intact cells and in cell-free systems, without affecting the activity of PKC. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Valeri A, Radhakrishnan J, Vernocchi L, Carmichael LD, Stern L. The epidemiology of peritonitis in acute peritoneal dialysis: a comparison between open- and closed-drainage systems.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
This
operation, according to the Arabian practice, was always performed
on a vein at a distance from the organ affected. The Hippocratic
and also Galenic rule, to let blood from, or near to, the diseased
organ, was revived by
Pierre Brissot (1470-1522), a
professor in the university of Paris. His attempt at reform, which
was taken to be, as in effect it was, a revolt against the
authority of the Arabian masters, led to his
expulsion from Paris, and the formal
prohibition by the
parliament of his method.
.^ Xanthone structurally related to the aflatoxins and while available data has led it to be considered mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic, it is less widespread and potent than the aflatoxins.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ David has also donated $5000 to Philippe Lucas of Vancouver Island Compassion Society (VICS) for research with patients who have been provided marijuana from VICS over the last several years.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ If the test subject in question were dandelions, there would be no controversy here.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Paracelsus and Chemical Medicine. - Contemporary with
the school of medical humanists, but little influenced by them,
lived in Germany a man of strange genius, of whose character and
importance the most opposite opinions have been expressed. The
first noticeable quality in Paracelsus (
c. 1490-1541) is
his revolutionary independence of thought, which was supported by
his immense personal arrogance. Himself well trained in the
learning and medical science of the day, he despised and trampled
upon all traditional and authoritative teachings.
.^ The Anderson Valley Advertiser has followed the details of the medical marijuana issue more closely than any other paper.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ We have now been trying without success for more than five years to purchase 10 grams of marijuana from NIDA for the expansion of our vaporizer research.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Chemic Labs had applied to purchase the 10 grams more than two years before.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
On the other hand, he spoke with respect of Hippocrates,
and wrote a commentary on his
Aphorisms. In this we see a
spirit very different from the enthusiasm of the humanists for a
purer and nobler philosophy than the scholastic and Arabian
versions of Greek thought.
.^ One of my most important findings has been that innovation, quality, and diversity of product characteristics satisfying consumers' demands are more likely to be achieved when there are multiple producers than when there is only one, i.e., a monopoly.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ There will need to be more work done to persuade the Ministry of Health that selling the medicine to patients is an appropriate course of action.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ If ALJ Bittner issues an unfavorable recommendation, DEA wins and there will probably be no privately-funded medical marijuana research effort ever started until a more reasonable President is in office.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Having thus made a clean sweep of nearly the whole of the
dogmatic medicine, what did Paracelsus put in its place? Certainly
not pure
empiricism,
or habits of objective observation. He had a dogma of his own - one
founded, according to his German expositors, on the views of the
Neoplatonists, of which a few disjointed specimens must here
suffice. The human body was a "
microcosm" which corresponded to the
"macrocosm," and contained in itself all parts of visible nature, -
sun,
moon, stars and the poles of
heaven. To know the nature of
man and how to deal with it, the physician should study, not
anatomy, which Paracelsus utterly rejected, but all parts of
external nature. Life was a perpetual germinative process
controlled by the indwelling spirit or Archeus; and diseases,
according to the mystical conception of Paracelsus, were not
natural but spiritual. Nature was sufficient for the cure of most
diseases; art had only to interfere when the internal physician,
the man himself, was tired or incapable. Then some remedy had to be
introduced which should be antagonistic, not to the disease in a
physical sense, but to the spiritual
seed of the disease. These remedies were
arcana - a word corresponding partly to what we now call
specific remedies, but implying a mysterious connexion between the
remedy and the "essence" of the disease.
.^ NIDA uses its monopoly to fundamentally obstruct research aimed at developing marijuana into an FDA-approved prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ Has been used in structural elucidation of mispairs with natural bases to explain their mutagenic properties.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Since it is not possible to obtain a patent on marijuana for use as a prescription medicine, an Orphan Drug Designation makes marijuana available for research and development into a prescription medicine.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
Great importance was
also attached to chemically prepared remedies as containing the
essence or spiritual quality of the material from which they were
derived. The actual therapeutical resources of Paracelsus included
a large number of metallic preparations, in the introduction of
some of which he did good service, and, among
vegetable preparations, the
tincture of
opium, still known by the name he gave it,
laudanum. In this doubtless
he derived much advantage from his knowledge of chemistry, though
the science was as yet not disentangled from the secret traditions
of
alchemy, and was often
mixed up with imposture.
.^ We estimate that the odds of prevailing over DEA are 2-1 against us -- in other words, more favorable than many of MAPS' long-shot efforts.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
That his personality was influential, and his intrepid
originality of great value as an example in his own country, is
undeniable. As a national reformer he has been not inaptly compared
to Luther. But his importance in the universal history of medicine
we cannot estimate so highly. The chief immediate result we can
trace is the introduction of certain mineral remedies, especially
antimony, the use of which
became a kind of badge of the disciples of Paracelsus. The use of
these remedies was not, however, necessarily connected with a
belief in his system, which seems to have spread little beyond his
own country. Of the followers of Paracelsus some became mere
mystical quacks and impostors. Others, of more learning and better
repute, were distinguished from the regular physicians chiefly by
their use of chemical remedies. In France the introduction of
antimony gave rise to a bitter controversy which lasted into the
17th century, and led to the expulsion of some men of mark from the
Paris faculty. In England "chemical medicine" is first heard of in
the reign of
Elizabeth,
and was in like manner contemned and assailed by the College of
Physicians and the Society of Apothecaries. But it should be
remembered that all the chemical physicians did not call Paracelsus
master. The most notorious of that school in England,
Francis Anthony (1550-1623),
never quotes Paracelsus, but relies upon Arnald de Villanova and
Raimon
Lull. From
this time, however, it is always possible to trace a school of
chemical practitioners, who, though condemned by the orthodox
Galenists, held their ground, till in the 17th century a successor
of Paracelsus arose in the celebrated J. B. Van Helmont.
Consequences of the Revival of Ancient Medicine
.^ DesMoines Register Columnist Rekha Basu delivers a compassionate and practical article on the benefits of marijuana and the "Catch-22" of the present medical marijuana struggle.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ "The question of whether marijuana has any legitimate medical purpose should be determined by sound science and medicine," DEA Administrator Asa Hutchinson said in a statement.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
.^ Himmelfarb J, Robinson R, Nye R, McMonagle E, Spratt D. Anabolic and catabolic hormone levels are better predictors of nutritional status than KT-V or PCR in hemodialysis [abstract].- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Chazot C, Chazot I, Charra B, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Laurent G. Functional study of hands among patients dialysed for more than 10 years.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Nevertheless some progress has to be recorded, even if not due
directly to the study of ancient medicine. In the first place the
15th and 16th centuries were notable for the outbreak of certain
epidemic diseases, which were unknown to the old physicians. Of
these the chief was the "
sweating sickness" or "English
sweat," especially prevalent in, though not confined to, the
country whence it is named.
.^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government’s main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This development could have implications for research with medical marijuana, since one of the government's main arguments has been that no legitimate medicine is smoked.- MAPS’ Medical Marijuana Research 9 February 2010 15:18 UTC www.maps.org [Source type: Academic]
The
spread of syphilis, a disease equally unknown to the ancients, and
the failure of Galen's remedies to cure it, had a similar
effect.
In another direction the foundations of modern medicine were
being laid during the 16th century - namely, by the introduction of
clinical instruction in hospitals.
.^ Nube MJ, De Vet JA, Steffens A, Van Geelen JA. Long-term results of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: the first hundred patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Chew SL, Lins RL, Daelemans R, Zachee P, De Clerck LS, Vermylen J. Are antiphospholipid antibodies clinically relevant in dialysis patients?- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Pupils flocked to him from all European
countries; Germans are especially mentioned; a Polish student
reported and published some of his lectures; and the Englishman
Kaye was a zealous
disciple, who does not, however, seem to have
done anything towards transplanting this method of instruction to
his own country. Inspections of the dead, to ascertain the nature
of the disease, were made, though not without difficulty, and thus
the modern period of the science of morbid anatomy was ushered
in.
Medicine in the 17th Century
The medicine of the early 17th century presents no features to
distinguish it from that of the preceding century. The practice and
theory of medicine were mainly founded upon Hippocrates and Galen,
with everincreasing additions from the chemical school. But the
development of mathematical and physical science soon introduced a
fundamental change in the habits of thought with respect to medical
doctrine.
These discoveries not only weakened or destroyed the respect for
authority in matters of science, but brought about a marked
tendency to mechanical explanations of life and disease. When
William Harvey by
his discovery of the circulation furnished an explanation of many
vital processes which was reconcilable with the ordinary laws of
mechanics, the efforts of
medical theorists were naturally directed to bringing all the
departments of medicine under similar laws. It is often assumed
that the writings and influence of
Bacon did much towards introducing a more
scientific method into medicine and physiology. But, without
discussing the general philosophical position or historical
importance of Bacon, it may safely be said that his direct
influence can be little traced in medical writings of the first
half of the r 7th century. Harvey, as is well known, spoke
slightingly of the great chancellor, and it is not till the rapid
development of physical science in England and
Holland in the latter part of the century, that
we find Baconian principles explicitly recognized.
The dominant factors in the r 7th-century medicine were the
discovery of the circulation by William Harvey (published in 1628),
the mechanical philosophy of
Descartes and the contemporary progress
of physics, the teaching of Van Helmont and the introduction of
chemical explanations of morbid processes, and finally, combined of
all these, and inspiring them, the rise of the spirit of inquiry
and innovation, which may be called the scientific movement. Before
speaking in detail of these, we may note that by other influences
quite independent of theories, important additions were made to
practical medicine. The method of clinical instruction in
hospitals, commenced by the Italians, was introduced into Holland,
where it was greatly developed, especially at
Leiden, in the hands of Francis de la Bo gy,
called Sylvius (1641-1672).
.^ Iseki K, Kawazoe N, Fukiyama K. Predictive values of clinical indices on survival in chronic hemodialysis patients a short-term prospective study [abstract].- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Levine E, Slusher SL, Grantham JJ, Wetzel LH. Natural history of acquired renal cystic disease in dialysis patients: a prospective longitudinal CT study.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The most important disease hitherto undescribed was
rickets, first made known by
Arnold de
Boot, a Frisian who
practised in
Ireland, in
1649, and afterwards more fully in the celebrated work of Francis
Glisson (1597-1677) in 1651. The plague was carefully studied by
Isbrand de Diemerbroek, in his
De Peste (1646), and
others. Nathaniel Hodges of London (1629-1688) in 1665 seems to
have been the first who had the courage to make a post mortem
inspection of a plague patient. Christopher Bennet (1617-1655)
wrote an important work on
consumption in 1654. During the same period
Many new remedies were introduced, the most important being
cinchona-bark, brought to
Spain in the year 1640. The progress of pharmacy was shown by the
publication of
Dispensatories or
Pharmacopoeiae
such as that of the Royal College of Physicians of London in 1618.
This, like the earlier German works of the same kind (on which it
was partly founded), contains both the traditional (Galenical) and
the modern or chemical remedies.
Van Helmont
.^ Bis-coclaurine alkaloid used for centuries in Chinese traditional medicine for cardiovascular diseases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
J. B. Van Helmont
(1578-1644) was a man of noble family in
Brussels, who, after mastering all other
branches of learning as then understood, devoted himself with
enthusiasm to medicine and chemistry. By education and position a
little out of the regular lines of the profession, he took up in
medicine an independent attitude. Well acquainted with the
doctrines of Galen, he rejected them as thoroughly as Paracelsus
did, and borrowed from the latter some definite ideas as well as
his revolutionary spirit. The archeus of Paracelsus appears again,
but with still further complications - the whole body being
controlled by the
archeus influus, and the organ of the
soul and its various parts by the
archei insiti, which are
subject to the central archeus. Many of the symptoms of diseases
were caused by the passions and perturbations of the archeus, and
medicines acted by modifying the
ideas of the same
archeus. These and other notions cannot be here stated at
sufficient length to be intelligible.
.^ Servicing Aerospace, Defense, Nuclear, Medical, Petro-Chemical.
He thus had some
share, though a share not generally recognized, in the foundation
of the iatro-chemical school, now to be spoken of. But his avowed
followers formed a small and discredited sect, which, in England at
least, can be clearly traced in the latter part of the century.
Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood
The influence of Harvey's discovery began to be felt before the
middle of the century. Its merits were recognized by Descartes,
among the first, nine years after its publication. For the history
of the discovery, and its consequences in anatomy and physiology,
we must refer to the article
Harvey. In respect of practical medicine, much
less effect was at first noticeable. But this example, combined
with the Cartesian principles, set many active and ingenious
spirits to work to reconstruct
the whole of medicine on a physiological or even a mechanical basis
- to endeavour to form what we should now call physiological or
scientific medicine. The result of this was not to eliminate dogma
from medicine, though it weakened the authority of the old dogma.
The movement led rather to the formation of schools or systems of
thought, which under various names lasted on into the 18th century,
while the belief in the utility or necessity of schools and systems
lasted much longer. The most important of these were the so-called
iatro-physical or mechanical and the iatro-chemical schools.
Iatro-Physical School
The iatro-physical school of medicine grew out of physiological
theories. Its founder is held to have been G. A. Borelli
(1608-1679), whose treatise
De motu animalium, published
in 1680, is regarded as marking an epoch in physiology. The
tendency of the school was to explain the actions and functions of
the body on physical, and especially on mechanical, principles.
.^ Shown to induces GPR40-dependent Ca2+ mobilization in HEK-293 cells and potentiate glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in MIN6 cells.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
The
developments of this school belong rather to the history of
physiology, where they appear, seen in the light of modern science,
as excellent though premature endeavours in a scientific direction.
But the influence of these theories on practical medicine was not
great. The more judicious of the mechanical or physical school
refrained, as a judicious modern physiologist does, from too
immediate an application of their principles to daily practice.
Mechanical theories were introduced into pathology, in explanation
of the processes of
fever and
the like, but had little or no influence on therapeutics. The most
important men in this school after Borelli were Nicolaus Stensen
(Steno), (1638-1686), Giorgio Baglivi (1669-1707) and
Lorenzo Bellini
(1643-1704). An English physician,
William Cole
(1635-1716), is also usually ranked with them. One of the most
elaborate developments of the system was that of
Archibald
Pitcairne (1652-1713), a Scottish physician who became
professor at Leiden, to be spoken of hereafter.
Iatro-Chemical School
The so-called iatro-chemical school stood in a much closer
relation to practical medicine than the iatrophysical.
.^ The active agent in a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat chronic myelocytic leukemia.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Bis-coclaurine alkaloid used for centuries in Chinese traditional medicine for cardiovascular diseases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A naturally occuring furanocoumarin used to treat septic shock in traditional Chinese medicine.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Its chief aim was to reconcile the
new views in physiology and chemistry with practical medicine. In
some theoretical views, and in the use of certain remedies, the
school owed something to Van Helmont and Paracelsus, but took in
the main an independent position. The founder of the iatrochemical
school was Sylvius (1614-1672), who belonged to a French family
settled in Holland, and was for fourteen years professor of
medicine at Leiden, where he attracted students from all quarters
of Europe.
.^ Steuer RR, Harris DH, Conis JM. A new optical technique for monitoring hematocrit and circulating blood volume: its application in renal dialysis.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Fermentation, which was supposed to take
place in the
stomach, played
an important part in the vital processes. Chemical disturbances of
these processes, called
acridities, &c., were the
cause of fevers and other diseases. Sometimes
acid sometimes alkaline properties predominated in
the juices and secretions of the body, and produced corresponding
disturbances. In nervous diseases disturbances of the vital
"spirits" were most important. Still in some parts of his system
Sylvius shows an anxiety to base his pathology on anatomical
changes. The remedies he employed were partly galenical, partly
chemical. He was very moderate in the use of bleeding.
The doctrines of Sylvius became widely spread in Holland and
Germany; less so in France and Italy. In England they were not
generally accepted till adopted with some modifications by
Thomas Willis the
great anatomist (1621-1675), who is the chief English
representative of the chemical school. Willis was as thorough-going
a chemist as Sylvius. He regarded all bodies, organic and
inorganic, as composed of the three elements - spirit,
sulphur and
salt, the first being only found abundantly in
animal bodies. The "
intestine movement of particles" in every
body, or fermentation, was the explanation of many of the processes
of life and disease. The sensible properties and physical
alterations of animal fluids and solids depended upon different
proportions, movements and combinations of these particles. The
elaborate work
Pharmaceutice rationalis (1674), based on
these materials, had much influence in its time, though it was soon
forgotten.
.^ Willis R. Foster, M.D., Benjamin T. Burton, Ph.D., and M. James Scherbenske, Ph.D., National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases .- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
In the application of
chemistry to the examination of secretions Willis made some
important steps. The chemical school met with violent opposition,
partly from the adherents of the ancient medicine, partly from the
iatro-mechanical school. Towards the end of the 17th century
appeared an English medical reformer who sided with none of these
schools, but may be said in some respects to have surpassed and
dispensed with them.
Sydenham and
Locke. -
Thomas
Sydenham (1624-1689) was educated at Oxford and at Montpellier.
He was well acquainted with the works of the ancient physicians,
and probably fairly so with chemistry. Of his knowledge of anatomy
nothing definite can be said, as he seldom refers to it. His main
avowed principle was to do without
hypothesis, and study the actual diseases in
an unbiassed manner. As his model in medical methods, Sydenham
repeatedly and pointedly refers to Hippocrates, and he has not
unfairly been called the English Hippocrates.
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Levine E, Slusher SL, Grantham JJ, Wetzel LH. Natural history of acquired renal cystic disease in dialysis patients: a prospective longitudinal CT study.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Chazot C, Chazot I, Charra B, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Laurent G. Functional study of hands among patients dialysed for more than 10 years.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The extent to which his practice was influenced by this and other
a priori conceptions
prevents us from classing Sydenham as a pure empiric; but he had
the rare merit of never permitting himself to be enslaved even by
his own theories. Still less was his mind warped by either of the
two great systems, the classical and the chemical, which then
divided the medical world. Sydenham's influence on European
medicine was very great. His principles were welcomed as a return
to nature by those who were weary of theoretical disputes.
.^ Laupacis A, Wong C, Churchill D. The use of generic and specific quality-of-life measures in hemodialysis patients treated with erythropoietin.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
He was an advocate of bleeding, and
often carried it to excess. Another important point in Sydenham's
doctrine is his clear recognition of many diseases as being what
would be now called
specific, and not due merely to an
alteration in the primary qualities or humours of the older
schools. From this springs his high appreciation of specific
medicines.
One name should always be mentioned along with Sydenhamthat of
his friend
John Locke.
The great sensational philosopher was a thoroughly trained
physician, and practised privately. He shared and defended many of
Sydenham's principles, and in the few medical observations he has
left shows himself to be even more thorough-going than the "English
Hippocrates." It is deeply to be regretted in the interests of
medicine that he did not write more. It is, however, reasonable to
suppose that his commanding intellect often makes itself felt in
the words of Sydenham. One sentence of Locke's, in a letter to
William
Molyneux, sums up
the practical side of Sydenham's teaching: "You cannot imagine how
far a little observation carefully made by a man not tied up to the
four humours [Galen], or sal, sulphur and
mercury [Paracelsus], or to acid and alcali
[Sylvius and Willis] which has of late prevailed, will carry a man
in the curing of diseases though very stubborn and dangerous; and
that with very little and common things, and almost no medicine at
all." We thus see that, while the great anatomists, physicists and
chemists - men of the type of Willis, Borelli and
Boyle - were laying foundations which were later
on built up into the fabric of scientific medicine, little good was
done by the premature application of their half-understood
principles to practice. The reform of practical medicine was
effected by men who aimed at, and partly succeeded in, rejecting
all hypothesis and returning to the unbiassed study of natural
processes, as shown in health and disease.
.^ Chazot C, Chazot I, Charra B, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Laurent G. Functional study of hands among patients dialysed for more than 10 years.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
From this time forth the reign of canonical authority in
medicine was at an end, though the dogmatic spirit long
survived.
The r8th Century
The medicine of the i 8th century is notable, like that of the
latter part of the 17th, for the striving after complete
theoretical systems. The influence of the iatro-physical school was
by no means exhausted; and in England, especially through the
indirect influence of Sir Isaac Newton's (1642-1727) great
astronomical generalizations, it took on a mathematical aspect, and
is sometimes known as iatro-mathematical. This phase is most
clearly developed in Archibald Pitcairne (1652-1713), who, though a
determined opponent of metaphysical explanations, and of the
chemical doctrines, gave to his own rude mechanical explanations of
life and disease almost the dogmatic completeness of a theological
system. His countryman and pupil, George Cheyne (1671-1743), who
lived some years at
Bath,
published a new theory of fevers on the mechanical system, which
had a great reputation. Their English contemporaries and
successors,
John
Freind, William Cole, and
Richard Mead, leaned also to mechanical
explanations, but with a distrust of systematic theoretical
completeness, which was perhaps partly a national characteristic,
partly the result of the teaching of Sydenham and Locke. Freind
(1675-1728) in his
Emmenologia gave a mechanical
explanation of the phenomena of menstruation. He is also one of the
most distinguished writers on the history of medicine. Cole
(1635-1716) (see above) published mechanical hypotheses concerning
the causation of fevers which closely agree with those of the
Italian iatro-mechanical school.
.^ Has a longer life-time than DMPO. Can distinguish between superoxide-dependent and independent mechanisms.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Mead was the pupil of the equally
popular and successful
John Radcliffe (1650-1714), who had
acquired from Sydenham a contempt for book-learning, and belonged
to no school in medicine but the school of common sense.
Radcliffe left, however, no
work requiring mention in a history of medicine. Mead, a man of
great learning and intellectual activity, was an ardent advocate of
the mathematical doctrines. "It is very evident," he says, "that
all other means of improving medicine have been found ineffectual,
by the stand it was at for two thousand years, and that, since
mathematicians have sot themselves to the study of it, men already
begin to talk so intelligibly and comprehensibly, even about
abstruse matters, that it is to be hoped that mathematical learning
will be the distinguishing mark of a physician and a
quack." His
Mechanical Account
of Poisons, in the first edition (1702), gave an explanation
of the effects of poisons, as acting only on the blood. Afterwards
he modified his hypothesis, and referred the disturbances produced
to the "nervous liquor," which he supposed to be a quantity of the
"universal elastic matter" diffused through the universe, by which
Newton explained the phenomena
of light - i.e. what was afterwards called the luminiferous
ether. Mead's treatise on
The
Power of the Sun and Moon over Human Bodies (1704), equally
inspired by Newton's discoveries, was a premature attempt to assign
the influence of atmospheric pressure and other cosmical causes in
producing disease. His works contain, however, many original
experiments, and excellent practical observations.
.^ Chazot C, Chazot I, Charra B, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Laurent G. Functional study of hands among patients dialysed for more than 10 years.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Boerhaave
None of these men founded a school - a result due in part to
their intellectual character, in part to the absence in England of
medical schools equivalent in position and importance to the
universities of the Continent. An important academical position
was, on the other hand, one of the reasons why a physician not very
different in his way of thinking from the English physicians of the
age of Queen Anne was able to take a far more predominant position
in the medical world.
Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) was
emphatically a great teacher. He was for many years .professor of
medicine at Leiden, where he lectured five hours a day, and
excelled in influence and reputation not only his greatest
forerunners, Montanus of Padua and Sylvius of Leiden, but probably
every subsequent teacher. The hospital of Leiden, though with only
twelve beds available for teaching, became the centre of medical
influence in Europe. Many of the leading English physicians of the
18th century studied there;
Gerard Van Swieten (1700-1772), a
pupil of Boerhaave, transplanted the latter's method of teaching to
Vienna, and founded the noted
Vienna school of medicine.
As the organizer, and almost the constructor, of the modern
method of clinical instruction, the services of Boerhaave to the
progress of medicine were immense, and can hardly be overrated. In
his teaching, as in his practice, he avowedly followed the method
of Hippocrates and Sydenham, both of whom he enthusiastically
admired. In his medical doctrines he must be pronounced an
eclectic, though taking his stand mainly on the iatro-mechanical
school. The bestknown parts of Boerhaave's system are his doctrines
of inflammation, obstruction and "plethora. ' By the last named
especially he was long remembered. His object was to make all the
anatomical and physiological acquisitions of his age, even
microscopical anatomy, which he diligently studied, available for
use in the practice of medicine. He thus differed from Sydenham,
who took almost as little account of modern science as of ancient
dogma. Boerhaave may be in some respects compared tO Galen, but
again differed from him in that he always abstained from attempting
to reduce his knowledge to a uniform and coherent system. Boerhaave
attached great importance to the study of the medical classics, but
rather treated them historically than quoted them as canonical
authorities.
.^ We routinely work with the following materials: natural rubber, SBR, Nitrite, EPDM, Neoprene, silicon, viton, butyl & acrylic rubber.- Rubber Molding Information and Resources 30 January 2010 3:18 UTC www.rubbermolding.org [Source type: Reference]
celebrated
Institutions, could not have any great permanent value.
.^ Kusakari J, Hara A, Takeyama M, Suzuki S, Igari T. The hearing of the patients treated with hemodialysis: a long term follow-up study.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Hoffmann and Stahl
We have now to speak of two writers in whom the systematic
tendency of the 18th century showed itself most completely.
Friedrich Hoffmann (1660-1742), like
Boerhaave, owed his influence, and perhaps partly his intellectual
characteristics, to his academical position. He was in 1693
appointed the first professor of medicine in the university of
Halle, then just founded by the
elector
Frederick
III. Here he became, as did his contemporary and rival Stahl, a
popular and influential teacher, though their university had not
the European importance of Leiden. Hoffmann's" system "was
apparently intended to reconcile the opposing" spiritual "and"
materialistic "views of nature, and is thought to have been much
influenced by the philosophy of
Leibnitz. His medical theories rest upon a
complete theory of the universe. Life depended upon a universally
diffused ether, which animals breathe in from the
atmosphere, and which is
contained in all parts of the body.
.^ PDMP closely resembles the natural sphingolipid substrate of brain glucosyltransferase and acts as a potent and competitive inhibitor of this enzyme.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
On this system are explained all the phenomena of
life and disease. Health depends on the maintenance of a proper"
tone "in the body - some diseases being produced by excess of tone,
or" spasm "; others by" atony,"or want of tone. But it is
impossible here to follow its further developments. Independently
of his system, which has long ceased to exert any influence,
Hoffmann made some contributions to practical medicine; and his
great knowledge of chemistry enabled him to investigate the subject
of
mineral
waters. He was equally skilful in pharmacy, but lowered his
position by the practice, which would be unpardonable in a modern
physician, of trafficking in secret remedies.
.^ Chazot C, Chazot I, Charra B, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Laurent G. Functional study of hands among patients dialysed for more than 10 years.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Stahl's chief aim was to oppose
materialism. For
mechanical conceptions he substituted the theory of"
animism "- attributing to the
soul the functions of ordinary animal life in man, while the life
of other creatures was left to mechanical laws. The symptoms of
disease were explained as efforts of the soul to rid itself from
morbid influences, the soul acting reasonably with respect to the
end of self-preservation. The anima thus corresponds partly to the"
nature "of Sydenham, while In other respects it resembles the
archeus of Van Helmont. Animism in its completeness met with little
acceptance during the lifetime of its author, but influenced some
of the iatro-physical school. Stahl was the author of the theory
of" phlogiston "in chemistry, which in its day had great
importance.
Haller and Morgagni
From the subtleties of rival systems it is a
satisfaction to turn
to two movements in the medicine of the 18th century which, though
they did not extinguish the spirit of system-making, opened up
paths of investigation by which the systems were ultimately
superseded. These are physiology in the modern sense, as dating
from Haller, and pathological anatomy, as dating from Morgagni.
Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) was
a man of even more encyclopaedic attainments than Boerhaave. He
advanced chemistry, botany, anatomy, as well as physiology, and was
incessantly occupied in endeavouring to apply his scientific
studies to practical medicine, thus continuing the work of his
great teacher Boerhaave.
.^ A citation may appear in more than one category.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Current Bibliographies in Medicine (CBM) is a continuation in part of the National Library of Medicine's Literature Search Series, which ceased in 1987 with No.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Haller occupied in the new
university of
Gottingen
(founded 1737) a position corresponding to that of Boerhaave at
Leiden, and in like manner influenced a very large circle of
pupils, The appreciation of his work in physiology belongs to the
history of that science; we are only concerned here with its
influence on medicine. Haller's definition of irritability as a
property of muscular
tissue,
and its distinction from sensibility as a property of nerves,
struck at the root of the prevailing hypothesis respecting animal
activity. It was no longer necessary to suppose that a
halfconscious" anima "was directing every movement. Moreover,
Haller's views did not rest on a priori speculation, but on
numerous experiments. He was among the first to investigate the
action of medicines on healthy persons. Unfortunately the
lesson which his contemporaries
learnt was not the importance of experiment, but only the need of
contriving ether" systems "less open to objection; and thus the
influence of Haller led directly to the theoretical subtleties of
William Cullen
and
John Brown, and
only indirectly and later on to the general anatomy of M. F. X.
Bichat. The great name of Haller does not therefore occupy a very
prominent place in the history of practical medicine.
The work of
Giovanni Battista Morgagni
(1682-1771) had and still preserves a permanent importance beyond
that of all the contemporary theorists.
.^ Each year, increasing numbers of people with irreversible end stage renal failure are treated under the United States Medicare ESRD (End-Stage Renal Disease) programs.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Poch E, Almirall J, Alsina M, del Rio R, Cases A, Revert L. Calciphylaxis in a hemodialysis patient: appearance after parathyroidectomy during a psoriatic flare.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
It
was not the first work of the kind. The Swiss physician, Theophile
Bonet (1620-1689) had published his
Sepulcretum in 1679;
and observations of post mortem appearances had been made by
Montanus, P. Tulp, Raymond Vieussens, A.M. Valsalva, G. M. Lancisi,
Haller and others. But never before was so large a collection of
cases brought together, described with such accuracy, or
illustrated with equal anatomical and medical knowledge. Morgagni's
work at once made an epoch in the science. Morbid anatomy now
became a recognized branch of medical research, and the movement
was started which has lasted till our own day.
The contribution of Morgagni to medical science must be regarded
as in some respects the counterpart of Sydenham's.
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Levine E, Slusher SL, Grantham JJ, Wetzel LH. Natural history of acquired renal cystic disease in dialysis patients: a prospective longitudinal CT study.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
But it is on the combination
of the two methods - that of Sydenham and of Morgagni - that modern
medicine rests; and it is through these that it has been able to
make steady progress in its own field, independently of the advance
of physiology or other sciences.
The method of Morgagni found many imitators, both in his own
country and in others. In England the first important name in this
field is at the same time that of the first writer of a systematic
work in any language on morbid anatomy, Matthew Baillie
(1761-1823), a nephew of John and
William Hunter, who published his
treatise in 1795.
It remains to speak of two systematic writers on medicine in the
18th century, whose great reputation prevents them from being
passed over, though their real contribution to the progress of
medicine was not great - Cullen and Brown.
William Cullen (1710-1790) was a most eminent and popular
professor of medicine at
Edinburgh. The same academical influences as
surrounded the Dutch and German founders of systems were doubtless
partly concerned in leading him to form the plan of a comprehensive
system of medicine. Cullen's system was largely based on the new
physiological doctrine of irritability, but is especially
noticeable for the importance attached to nervous action. Thus even
gout was regarded as a"
neurosis."These pathological principles of Cullen are contained in
his
First Lines of the Practice of Physic, an extremely
popular book, often reprinted and translated.
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Cullen drew out a
classification of great and needless complexity, the chief part of
which is now forgotten, but several of his main divisions are still
preserved.
It is difficult to form a clear estimate of the importance of
the last systematizer of medicine - John Brown (1735-1788) - for,
though in England he has been but little regarded, the wide though
shortlived popularity of his system on the Continent shows that it
must have contained some elements of brilliancy, if not
originality.
.^ McClellan WM, Anson C, Birkeli K, Tuttle E. Functional status and quality of life: predictors of early mortality among patients entering treatment for end stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Lowers seizure threshold and reverses the sedative effect of flurazepam.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Used in the stimulation of β-galactosidase in cellular systems in which dioxane would disrupt normal cell function.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In this he claimed
to have made the most salutary reform because all physicians from
Hippocrates had treated diseases by depletion and debilitating
measures with the object of curing by elimination. It would be
unprofitable to attempt a complete analysis of the Brunonian
system; and it is difficult now to understand why it attracted so
much attention in its day. To us at the present time it seems
merely a dialectical construction, having its beginning and end in
definitions: the words power, stimulus, &c., being used in such
a way as not to correspond to any precise physical conceptions,
still less to definite material objects or forces.
.^ HRP-based detection systems; sites of HRP activity appear as brown-orange deposits; recommended for use with Clarion Mounting Medium (sc-24942).- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
He advocated the use of" animal soups "or
beef-
tea. Further, he had the discernment to see that
certain symptoms - such as
convulsions and
delirium, which were then commonly held always
to indicate inflammation - were often really signs of weakness.
The fortunes of Brown's system (called, from having been
originally written in Latin, the Brunonian) form one of the
strangest chapters in the history of medicine. In
Scotland, Brown so far won
the sympathy of the students that riotous conflicts took place
between his partisans and opponents. In England his system took
little root. In Italy, on the other hand, it received enthusiastic
support, and, naturally, a corresponding degree of opposition. The
most important adherent to Brown's system was J. Rasori
(1763-1837), who taught it as professor at
Pavia, but afterwards substituted his own system
of contra-stimulus. The theoretical differences between this and
the" stimulus "theory need not be expounded.
.^ Clinically used for treatment of depression and anxiety.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Joseph Frank (1774-1841), a German professor at
Pavia, afterwards of Vienna, the author of an encyclopaedic work on
medicine now forgotten, embraced the Brunonian system, though he
afterwards introduced some modifications, and transplanted it to
Vienna. Many names are quoted as partisans or opponents of the
Brunonian system in Italy, but scarcely one of them has any other
claim to be remembered. In Germany the new system called forth, a
little later, no less enthusiasm and controversial heat. C.
Girtanner (1760-1800) first began to spread the new ideas (though
giving them out as his own), but Weikard was the first avowed
advocate of the system. RSschlaub (1768-1835) modified Brown's
system into the theory of excitement (
Erregungstheorie),
which for a time was extremely popular in Germany. The enthusiasm
of the younger Brunonians in Germany was as great as in Edinburgh
or in Italy, and led to serious riots in the university of
Gottingen. In America the system was enthusiastically adopted by a
noted physician,
Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), of
Philadelphia, who was
followed by a considerable school. France was not more influenced
by the new school than England.
.^ Cellular data have indicated that the compound is more effective towards Raf-1and A-Raf than B-Raf.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In France, however, the influence of Brown's
theories is very clearly seen in the writings of Francois J. V.
Broussais, who, though not rightly classed with the system-makers,
since his conclusions were partly based upon anatomical
investigation, resembled them in his attempt to unite theory and
practice in one comprehensive synthesis. The explanation of the
meteoric splendour of the Brunonian system in other countries seems
to be as follows. In Italy the period of intellectual decadence had
set in, and no serious scientific ardour remained to withstand the
novelties of abstract theory. In Germany the case was somewhat
different. Intellectual activity was not wanting, but the great
achievements of the 18th century in philosophy and the moral
sciences had fostered a love of abstract speculation; and some sort
of cosmical or general system was thought indispensable in every
department of special science. Hence another generation had to pass
away before Germany found herself on the level, in scientific
investigation, of France and England.
Before the theoretic tendency of the 18th century was quite
exhausted, it displayed itself in a system which, though in some
respects isolated in the history of medicine, stands nearest to
that of Brown - that, namely, of Hahnemann (see Homoeopathy). S. C.
F. Hahnemann (1753-1844) was in conception as revolutionary a
reformer of medicine as Paracelsus. He professed to base medicine
entirely on a knowledge of symptoms, regarding all investigation of
the causes of symptoms as useless.
.^ Blythe WB, Maddux FW. Hypertension as a causative diagnosis of patients entering end-stage renal disease programs in the United States from 1980 to 1986.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
All chronic maladies result either from three diseasespsora
(the itch), syphilis or sycosis (a
skin disease), or else are maladies
produced by medicines. Seven-eighths of all chronic diseases are
produced by itch driven inwards.' (It is fair to say that these
views were published in one of his later works.)
.^ Hou S, Orlowski J, Pahl M, Ambrose S, Hussey M, Wong D. Pregnancy in women with end-stage renal disease: treatment of anemia and premature labor.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Knight F, Gorynski L, Bentson M, Harmon W. Chronic hemodialysis as a treatment for the infant or small child with end stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Rosansky SJ, Jackson K. Rate of change of end-stage renal disease treatment incidence 1978-1987--has there been selection?- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
" similaa similibus curantur,"which he explained as depending on
the law that in order to get rid of a disease some remedy must be
given which should substitute for the disease an action dynamically
similar, but weaker. The original malady being thus got rid of, the
vital force would easily be able to cope with and extinguish the
slighter disturbance caused by the remedy. Something very similar
was held by Brown, who taught that" indirect debility was to be
cured by a lesser degree of the same stimulus as had caused the
original disturbance. Generally, however, Hahnemann's views
contradict those of Brown, though moving somewhat in the same
plane. In order to select remedies which should fulfil the
indication of producing symptoms like those of the disease,
Hahnemann made many observations of the action of drugs on healthy
persons. He did not originate this line of research, for it had
been pursued, if not originated, by Haller, and cultivated
systematically by Tommasini, an Italian "contra-stimulist"; but he
carried it out with much elaboration. His results, nevertheless,
were vitiated by being obtained in the interest of a theory, and by
singular want of discrimination. In his second period he developed
the theory of "potentiality" or dynamization - namely, that
medicines gained in strength by being diluted, if the dilution was
accompanied by shaking or pounding, which was supposed to
"potentialize" or increase the potency of the medicine. On this
principle Hahnemann ordered his original tinctures to be reduced in
strength to onefiftieth; these first dilutions again to
one-fiftieth; and so on, even till the thirtieth dilution, which he
himself used by preference, and to which he ascribed the highest
"potentiality." From a theoretical point of view Hahnemann's is one
of the abstract systems, pretending to universality, which modern
medicine neither accepts nor finds it worth while to controvert. In
the treatment of disease his practical innovations came at a
fortunate time, when the excesses of the depletory system had only
partially been superseded by the equally injurious opposite extreme
of Brown's stimulant treatment. Hahnemann's use of mild and often
quite inert remedies contrasted favourably with both of these.
Further, he did good by insisting upon simplicity in prescribing,
when it was the custom to give a number of drugs, often
heterogeneous and inconsistent, in the same
prescription. But these indirect benefits
were quite independent of the truth or falsity of his theoretical
system.
Positive Progress in the 18th Century
In looking back on the repeated attempts in the 18th century to
construct a universal system of medicine, it is impossible not to
regret the waste of brilliant gifts and profound acquirements which
they involved. It was fortunate, however, that the
accumulation of
positive knowledge in medicine did not cease. While Germany and
Scotland, as the chief homes of abstract speculation, gave birth to
most of the theories, progress in objective science was most marked
in other countries - in Italy first, and afterwards in England and
France. We must retrace our steps a little to enumerate several
distinguished names which, from the nature of the case, hardly
admit of classification.
In Italy the tradition of the great anatomists and physiologists
of the 17th century produced a series of accurate observers and
practitioners. Among the first of these were
Antonio Maria Valsalva
(1666-1723), still better known as an anatomist; Giovanni Maria
Lancisi (1654-1720), also an anatomist, the author of a classical
work on the diseases of the
heart and aneurisms; and Ippolito Francisco
Albertini (1662-1738), whose researches on the same class of
diseases were no less important.
In France, Jean Baptiste Senac (1693-1770) wrote also an
important work on the affections of the heart.
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
But the state of
medicine in that country till the end of the 18th century was
unsatisfactory as compared with some other parts of Europe.
In England the brilliancy of the early part of the century in
practical medicine was hardly maintained to the end, and presented,
indeed, a certain contrast with the remarkable and unflagging
progress of surgery in the same period. The roll of the College of
Physicians does not furnish many distinguished names. Among these
should be mentioned
John Fothergill (1712-1780), who
investigated the "putrid sore
throat" now called
diphtheria, and the form of
neuralgia popularly known
as tic douloureux. A physician of Plymouth, John Huxham
(1694-1768), made researches on epidemic fevers, in the spirit of
Sydenham and Hippocrates, which are of the highest importance.
William
Heberden (1710-1801), a London physician, called by
Samuel Johnson
ultimus Romanorum, " the last of our learned physicians,"
left a rich
legacy of
practical observations in the
Commentaries published after
his death.
.^ Tool useful for increasing intracellular Ca 2+ concentrations.More effective than A23187 and non-fluorescent.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
had
been introduced into England in 1721. The history of this discovery
need not be told here, but it may be pointed out that, apart from
its practical importance, it has had great influence on the
scientific study of infectious diseases. The name of
John Pringle
(1707-1782) should also be mentioned as one of the first to study
epidemics of fevers occurring in prisons and camps. His work,
entitled
Observations on the Diseases of an Army, was
translated into many European languages and became the standard
authority on the subject.
In Germany the only important school of practical medicine was
that of Vienna, as revived by Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772), a
pupil of Boerhaave, under the patronage of
Maria Theresa. Van Swieten's commentaries
on the aphorisms of Boerhaave are thought more valuable than the
original text.
.^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Bis-coclaurine alkaloid used for centuries in Chinese traditional medicine for cardiovascular diseases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
One novelty, however, of the first importance is due to a Vienna
physician of the period, Leopold Auenbrugger (1722-1809), the
inventor of the method of recognizing diseases of the
chest by percussion. Auenbrugger's
method was that of
direct percussion with the tips of the
fingers, not that which is now used, of
mediate percussion
with the intervention of a
finger or plessimeter; but the results of his
method were the same and its value nearly as great. Auenbrugger's
great work, the
Inventum novum, was published in 1761. The
new practice was received at first with contempt and even ridicule,
and afterwards by Stoll and Peter Frank with only grudging
approval. It did not receive due recognition till 1808, when J. N.
Corvisart translated the
Inventum novum into French, and
Auenbrugger's method rapidly attained a European reputation.
Surpassed, but not eclipsed, by the still more important art of
auscultation
introduced by R. T. H. Laennec, it is hardly too much to say that
this simple and purely mechanical invention has had more influence
on the development of modern medicine than all the "systems"
evolved by the most brilliant intellects of the 18th century.
Rise of the Positive School in France
The reform of medicine in France must be dated from the great
intellectual awakening caused by the Revolution, but more
definitely starts with the researches in anatomy and physiology of
Marie Francois Xavier
Bichat (1771-1802). The importance in science of Bichat's
classical works, especially of the
Anatomie generale,
cannot be estimated here; we can only point out their value as
supplying a new basis for pathology or the science of disease.
Among the most ardent of his followers was
Francois Joseph Victor
Broussais (1772-1838), whose theoretical views, partly founded
on those of Brown and partly on the so-called vitalist school of
Theophile Bordeu (1722-1776) and
Paul Joseph Barthez
(1734-1806), differed from these essentially in being avowedly
based on anatomical observations. Broussais's chief aim was to find
an anatomical basis for all diseases, but he is especially known
for his attempt to explain all fevers as a consequence of
irritation or inflammation of the intestinal canal
(gastroenterite). A number of other maladies, especially general
diseases and those commonly regarded as nervous, were attributed to
the same cause. It would be impossible now to trace the steps which
led to this wild and long since exploded theory. It led, among
other consequences, to an enormous misuse of bleeding. Leeches were
his favourite instruments, and so much so that he is said to have
used ioo,000 in his own hospital wards during one year. He was
equalled if not surpassed in this excess by his follower Jean
Bouillaud (1796-1881), known for his important work on heart
diseases. Broussais's system, to which he gave the name of
"Medecine physiologique," did much indirect good, in fixing
attention upon morbid changes in the organs, and thus led to the
rise of the strongly opposed anatomical and pathological school of
Corvisart, Laennec and Bayle.
Jean Nicolas Corvisart (1755-1821) has already been mentioned as
the translator and introducer into France of Auenbrugger's work on
percussion. He introduced some improvements in the method, but the
only real advance was the introduction of mediate percussion by
Pierre Adolphe Piorry
(1794-1879) in 1828. The discovery had, however, yet to be
completed by that of auscultation, or listening to sounds produced
in the chest by breathing, the movements of the heart, &c. The
combination of these methods constitutes what is now known as
physical diagnosis. Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec
(1781-1826) was the inventor of this most important perhaps of all
methods of medical research. Except for some trifling notices of
sounds heard in certain diseases, this method was entirely new.
.^ Potent and specific inhibitor of CKII. It has been used to inhibit RNA polymerase II mediated-transcription which may be dependent on CKII and its interaction with ATF-1.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
The result of his discovery
was an entire revolution in the knowledge of diseases of the chest;
but it would be a mistake to forget that an essential factor in
this revolution was the simultaneous study of the condition of the
diseased organs as seen after death. Without the latter, it is
difficult to see how the information conveyed by sounds could ever
have been verified. This increase of knowledge is therefore due,
not to auscultation alone, but to auscultation combined with morbid
anatomy.
.^ Poch E, Almirall J, Alsina M, del Rio R, Cases A, Revert L. Calciphylaxis in a hemodialysis patient: appearance after parathyroidectomy during a psoriatic flare.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The pathologico-anatomical method was also
followed with great zeal and success by Gaspard Laurent Bayle
(1774-1816), whose researches on tubercle, and the changes of the
lungs and other organs in consumption, are the foundation of most
that has been done since his time. It was of course antecedent to
the discovery of auscultation. Starting from these men arose a
school of physicians who endeavoured to give to the study of
symptoms the same precision as belonged to anatomical observations,
and by the combination of both methods made a new era in clinical
medicine. Among these were
Auguste Francois
Chomel (1788-1858), Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787-1872),
Jean
Cruveilhier (1791-1874) and Gabriel Andral (1797-1876). Louis,
by his researches on pulmonary consumption and
typhoid fever, had
the chief merit of refuting the doctrines of Broussais. In another
respect also he aided in establishing an exact science of medicine
by the introduction of the numerical or statistical method. By this
method only can the fallacies which are attendant on drawing
conclusions from isolated cases be avoided; and thus the chief
objection which has been made to regarding medicine as an inductive
science has been removed. Louis's method was improved and
systematized by Louis
Denis
Jules Gavarret (1809-1890) and its utility is now universally
recognized. During this brilliant period of French medicine the
superiority of the school of Paris could hardly be contested. We
can only mention the names of Pierre Bretonneau (1771-1862), Louis
Leon Rostan (1790-1866), Jean
Louis D'Alibert (1766-1837), Pierre Francois
Olive Rayer (1793-1867) and Armand Trousseau
(1801-1866), the eloquent and popular teacher.
English Medicine from 1800 to
1840. - The
progress of medicine in England during this period displays the
same characteristics as at other times, viz. a gradual and
uninterrupted development, without startling changes such as are
caused by the sudden rise or fall of a new school. Hardly any
theoretical system is of English birth;
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the
grandfather of the great
Charles Darwin, alone makes an
exception. In his
Zoonomia (1794) he expounded a theory of
life and disease which had some resemblance to that of Brown,
though arrived at (he says) by a different chain of reasoning.
Darwin's work shows, however, the tendency to connect medicine
with physical science, which was an immediate consequence of the
scientific discoveries of the end of the 18th century, when
Priestley and Cavendish in England exercised the same influence as
Lavoisier in France. The English school of medicine was also
profoundly stirred by the teachings of the two brothers William and
John Hunter,
especially the latter - who must therefore be briefly mentioned,
though their own researches were chiefly concerned with subjects
lying a little outside the limits of this sketch. William Hunter
(1718-1783) was known in London as a brilliant teacher of anatomy
and successful obstetric physician; his younger brother and pupil,
John Hunter (1728-1793), was also a teacher of anatomy, and
practised as a surgeon. His immense contributions to anatomy and
pathology cannot be estimated here, but his services in stimulating
research and training investigators belong to the history of
general medicine. They are sufficiently evidenced by the fact that
Edward Jenner
and Matthew Baillie were his pupils.
The same scientific bent is seen in the greater attention paid
to morbid anatomy (which dates from Baillie) and the more
scientific method of studying diseases. An instance of the latter
is the work of Robert Willan (1757-1812) on diseases of the skin -
a department of medicine in which abstract and hypothetical views
had been especially injurious. Willan, by following the
natural-history method of Sydenham, at once put the study on a
sound basis; and his work has been the starting-point of the most
important modern researches. About the same time William
Charles Wells (1757-1817), a
scientific investigator of remarkable power, and the author of a
celebrated essay on
dew, published
observations on alterations in the urine, which, though little
noticed at the time, were of great value as assisting in the
important discovery made some years afterwards by Richard
Bright.
These observers, and others who cannot be mentioned here, belong
to the period when English medicine was still little influenced by
the French school. Shortly after 1815, however, when the continent
of Europe was again open to English travellers, many English
doctors studied in Paris, and the discoveries of their great French
contemporaries began to be known. The method of auscultation was
soon introduced into England by pupils of Laennec.
John Forbes (1787-1861)
in 1824, and William Stokes (1804-1878) of
Dublin in 1825, published treatises on the use
of the stethoscope.
Forbes
also translated the works of Laennec and Auenbrugger, and an entire
revolution was soon effected in the knowledge of diseases of the
chest. James Hope (1801-1841) and Peter Mere Latham (1789-1875)
further developed this subject, and the former was also known for
his researches in morbid anatomy. The combination of clinical and
anatomical research led, as in the hands of the great French
physicians, to important discoveries by English investigators. The
discovery by Richard Bright (1789-1858) of the disease of the
kidneys known by his name proved to be one of the most momentous of
the century. It was published in
Reports of Medical Cases
1827-1831.. Thomas Addison (1793-1860) takes, somewhat later,
a scarcely inferior place. The remarkable physiological discoveries
of
Sir Charles
Bell (1774-1842) and
Marshall Hall (1790-1857) for the first
time rendered possible the discrimination of diseases of the
spinal cord. Several of
these physicians were also eminent for their clinical teaching - an
art in which Englishmen had up till then been greatly
deficient.
Although many names of scarcely less note might be mentioned
among the London physicians of the early part of the century, we
must pass them over to consider the progress of medicine in
Scotland and Ireland. In Edinburgh the admirable teaching of Cullen
had raised the medical faculty to a height of prosperity of which
his successor, James
Gregory
(1758-1821), was not unworthy. His nephew,
William
Pulteney Alison (1790-1859), was even more widely known. These
great teachers maintained in the northern university a continuous
tradition of successful teaching, which the difference in
academical and other circumstances rendered hardly possible in
London. Nor was the northern school wanting in special
investigators, such as
John Abercrombie (1780-1844), known
for his work on diseases of the brain and spinal
cord, published in 1828, and many others. Turning
to Ireland, it should be said that the Dublin school in this period
produced two physicians of the highest distinction.
Robert
James Graves (1796-1853) was a most eminent clinical teacher
and observer, whose lectures are regarded as the model of clinical
teaching, and indeed served as such to the most popular teacher of
the Paris school in the middle of this century, Trousseau. William
Stokes (1804-1878) was especially known for his works on diseases
of the chest and of the heart, and for his clinical teaching.
German Medicine from 1800 to 1840
Of the other countries of Europe, it is now only necessary to
mention Germany. Here the chief home of positive medicine was still
for a long time Vienna, where the "new Vienna school" continued and
surpassed the glory of the old. Joseph Skoda (1805-1881) extended,
and in some respects corrected, the art of auscultation as left by
Laennec. Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878), by his colossal labours,
placed the science of morbid anatomy on a permanent basis, and
enriched it by numerous discoveries of detail. Most of the ardent
cultivators of this science in Germany in the next generation were
his pupils. In the other German schools, though some great names
might be found, as Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795-1873), the founder
of the modern era in the study of nervous diseases, the general
spirit was scholastic and the result barren till the teaching of
one man, whom the modern German physicians generally regard as the
regenerator of scientific medicine in their country, made itself
felt. Johann Lucas Schdnlein (1793-1864) was first professor at
Wiirzburg, afterwards at
Zurich, and for twenty years at
Berlin (from 1839-1859).
Schdnlein's positive contributions to medical science were not
large; but he made in 1839 one discovery, apparently small, but in
reality most suggestive, namely, that the contagious disease of the
head called
favus is produced by
the growth in the hair of a parasitic fungus. In this may be found
the germ of the startling modern discoveries in
parasitic
diseases. His systematic doctrines founded the so-called
"natural history school"; but his real merit was that of the
founder or introducer of a method. In the words of H. Haser:
"Schdnlein has the incontestable merit of having been the first to
establish in Germany the exact method of the French and the
English, and to impregnate this method with the vivifying spirit of
German research." (J. F. P.)
Modern Progress. - In recent
times the positive bent of modern knowledge and methods in other
spheres of science and thought, and especially in
biology, has influenced
medicine profoundly. Minuter accuracy of observation was inculcated
by the labours and teaching of the great anatomists of the 17th
century; and, for modern times, experimental physiology was
instituted by Harvey, anatomy having done little to interpret life
in its dynamic aspects. For medicine in England Harvey did what
William Gilbert
did for physics and
Robert Boyle for chemistry: he insisted
upon direct interrogation of natural processes, and thereby
annihilated the ascendancy of mere authority, which, while nations
were in the making, was an essential principle in the
welding together of
heterogeneous and turbulent peoples.
.^ Knabe C, Grosse-Siestrup C, Becker H, Pustelnik A, Gahl G. A new method to evaluate the CAPD-catheter-exit and other percutaneous devices.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Among such contributory causes is the more familiar
intercourse of settled nations which we enjoy in our own day; the
ideas of one nation rapidly permeate neighbouring nations, and by
the means of printed books penetrate into remoter provinces and
into distant lands. Hence the description of the advance of
medicine in western Europe and America may for the latest stage be
taken as a whole, without that separate treatment, nation by
nation, which in the history of earlier times was necessary. Italy
lost the leading place she had taken in the new development of
science. The several influences of modern Germany, France and
America became of the first importance to English medicine; but
these tides, instead of pursuing their courses as independent
streams, have become confluent. The work of
Theodor Schwann
(1810-1882), Johannes Muller (1809-1875),
Rudolph Virchow and Karl Ludwig
(1816-1895) in Germany, of R. T. H. Laennec and
Claude Bernard in
France, was accepted in England, as that of Matthew Baillie,
Charles
Bell, Bright, Graves and
others of the British school, quickly made itself felt abroad.
.^ The two diastereomers may be separated by silica gel chromatography providing 8(R) (more polar) and 8(S) (less polar) hepoxilins.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ NCI studies show lack of activity against tumors and AIDS. An interesting metabolite which has received little attention in modern times.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ No metabolic side effects as observed with dibutyryl-cAMP or 8-Br-cAMP. More lipophilic and membrane permeant than Sp-cAMPS. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ McCarthy JT, Hodgson SF, Fairbanks VF, Moyer TP. Clinical and histologic features of iron-related bone disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Again, to
the naturalist the symptoms of tabes dorsalis were distinctive
enough, had he noted them.
.^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Indeed, it does not seem to have
occurred to any one to compare the muscular strength in the various
kinds of paraplegia.
.^ The Current Bibliographies in Medicine series is also available at no cost to anyone with Internet access through FTP (File Transfer Protocol).- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Knabe C, Grosse-Siestrup C, Becker H, Pustelnik A, Gahl G. A new method to evaluate the CAPD-catheter-exit and other percutaneous devices.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
And it is not only the
perceptions of eye or
ear which
tell, but also the association of concepts behind these adits of
the mind. It was the concepts derived from the experimental methods
of Harvey, Lavoisier, Liebig, Claude Bernard, Helmholtz, Darwin,
Pasteur, Lister and others which, directly or indirectly, trained
the eyes of clinicians to observe more closely and accurately; and
not of clinicians only, but also of pathologists, such as Matthew
Baillie, Cruveilhier, Rokitansky, Bright, Virchowto name but a few
of those who, with (as must be admitted) new facilities for
necropsies, began to
pile upon us
discoveries in morbid anatomy and
histology. If at first in the 18th century,
and in the earlier 19th, the discoveries in this branch of medical
knowledge had a certain isolation, due perhaps to the
prepossessions of the school of Sydenham, they soon became the
property of the physician, and were brought into co-ordination with
the clinical phenomena of disease. The great Morgagni, the founder
of morbid anatomy, himself set the example of carrying on this
study parallel with clinical observation; and always insisted that
the clinical story of the case should be brought side by side with
the revelations of the necropsy. In pathology, indeed, Virchow's
(1821-1902) influence in the transfiguration of this branch of
science may almost be compared to that of Darwin and Pasteur in
their respective domains. In the last quarter of the 19th century
the conception grew clearer that morbid anatomy for the most part
demonstrates disease in its static aspects only, and also for the
most part in the particular aspect of final demolition; and it
became
manifest as
pathology and clinical medicine became more and more thoroughly
integrated, that the processes which initiate and are concerned in
this
dissolution
were not revealed by the scalpel.
Again, the physician as naturalist, though stimulated by the
pathologist to delineate disease in its fuller manifestations, yet
was hampered in a measure by the didactic method of constructing
"types" which should command the attention of the disciple and
rivet themselves on his memory;
thus too often those incipient and transitory phases which initiate
the paths of dissolution were missed.
.^ A citation may appear in more than one category.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Upon this too static a view, both of clinical
type and of post-mortem-room pathology, came a despairing spirit,
almost of
fatalism, which
in the contemplation of organic ruins lost the hope of cure of
organic diseases. So prognosis became pessimistic, and the
therapeutics of the abler men negative, until fresh hopes arose of
stemming the tides of evil at their earliest flow. Such was
medicine, statically ordered in pathology, statically ordered in
its clinical concepts, when, on the 24th of November 1859 the
Origin of Species was published. It is no exa eration to
say that this epoch-making work gg }' p g brought to birth a world
of conceptions as new as the work of
Copernicus. For the natural philosopher the
whole point of view of things was changed; in biology not only had
the anthropocentric point of view been banished, but the ancient
concept of perpetual
flux was brought home to ordinary
men, and entered for good into the framework of thought. The study
of comparative pathology, yet in an inchoate stage, and of
embryology,
illuminated and
enlarged biological conceptions, both normal and abnormal; and the
ens reale subsistens in corpore disappeared for ever - at
any rate from physiology and medicine. Before Darwin - if the name
of Darwin may be used to signify the transformation of thought of
which he was the chief artificer - natural objects were regarded,
not in medicine and pathology only, as a set of hidebound events;
and natural operations as moving in fixed grooves, after a fashion
which it is now difficult for us to realize.
.^ Flow Forming Processes .- Titanium Information and Resources 9 January 2010 0:56 UTC www.titanium.cc [Source type: Reference]
- Aluminum Suppliers Information and Resources 10 February 2010 11:10 UTC www.aluminumsuppliers.net [Source type: Reference]
.^ Benhamou PY, Marwah T, Balducci F, Zmirou D, Borgel F, Cordonnier D, Halimi S, Papoz L. Classification of diabetes in patients with end-stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ NO donor similar to NOC-5 and NOC-7 but with a much longer half-life of NO release.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Its extended stability and slow development of bacterial resistance allow long-term virus and tissue culture studies.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Thus, for example, as generations succeed one another,
nervous disorders appear in various
guise;
epilepsy, megrim,
insanity,
asthma,
hysteria,
neurasthenia, a
motley array
at first sight, seemed to reveal themselves as terms of a morbid
series; not only so, but certain disorders of other systems also
might be members of the series, such as certain diseases of the
skin, and even peculiar susceptibilities or immunities in respect
of infections from without.
.^ A citation may appear in more than one category.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ This salt form is more stable than the dihydrochloride.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In the effects of simpler poisons the recognition of
unity in diversity, as in the
affiliation of a peripheral neuritis to
arsenic, illustrated more
definitely this serial or etiological method of classifying
diseases. On the other hand,
inheritance was dismissed, or survived only
as a "susceptibility," in the cases of tubercle, leprosy and some
other maladies now recognized as infectious; while in others, as in
syphilis, it was seen to consist in a translation of the infectious
element from parent to offspring. These new conceptions of the
multiplicity in unity of disease, and of the fluidity and
continuity of morbid processes, might have led to vagueness and
over-boldness in speculation and reconstruction, had not the
experimental method been at hand with clues and tests for the
several series. Of this method the rise and wonderful extension of
the science of
bacteriology also furnished no
inconsiderable part.
In the disease of the
scalp
called favus, Schonlein had discovered a minute mycelial fungus; a
remarkable discovery, for it was the first conspicuous step in the
attribution of diseases to the action of minute parasites.
Schbnlein thus did something to introduce new and positive
conceptions and exacter methods into Germany; but unfortunately his
own mind retained the abstract habit of his country, and his
abilities were dissipated in the mere speculations of Schelling.
.^ Cefali EA, Poynor WJ, Sica D, Cox S. Pharmacokinetic comparison of flurbiprofen in end-stage renal disease subjects and subjects with normal renal function.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Evans RW. Recombinant human erythropoietin and the quality of life of end-stage renal disease patients: a comparative analysis.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Conlon PJ, Walshe JJ, O'Donnell R, O'Donohoe A, Spencer R, Donohoe J, Carmody M. The use of recombinant human erythropoietin in end stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Even that distinguished physiologist Johannes Muller remained a
staunch vitalist. Fortunately Germany, which at the beginning of
the century was delivered over to Brownism and vitalism and was
deaf to Bichat, was
rescued from this sort of barrenness by the brilliant experimental
work of Claude Bernard and Pasteur in France - work which, as
regards the attenuated virus, was a development of that of Edward
Jenner, and indeed of Schwann,
Robert Koch worthily following Pasteur with
his work on the bacillus of
anthrax and with his discovery of that of
tuberculosis; and by
the cellular doctrine and abundant labours in pathology of Virchow.
Ludwig Brieger then discovered the toxins of certain infections;
and Emil A. von Behring completed the sphere of the new study by
his discovery of the antitoxins of diphtheria and tetanus. In
practical medicine the subsequent results of Behring and his
followers have in diphtheria attained a
signal therapeutical success. If the striking
conceptions of Paul Ehrlich and
Emil Fischer continue to prove as fertile
in inspiring and directing research as at present they seem to be,
another wide sphere of. conceptions will be opened out, not in
bacteriology only, but also in biological chemistry and in
molecular physics. Again, besides giving us the
clue to the nature of many diseases and to the
continuity of many morbid series, by bacteriology certain diseases,
such as
actinomycosis, have been recognized for
the first time.
As the prevalence of the conceptions signified and inspired by
the word "phlogiston" kept alive ontological notions of disease, so
the dissipation of vitalistic conceptions in the field of physics
prepared men's minds in pathology for the new views opened by the
discoveries of Pasteur on the side of pathogeny, and of J. F.
Cohnheim (1839-1884) and of Iliya Metchnikoff on the dynamical side
of his-
Fevers tology. Of the older ontological notions of
disease the strongest were those of the essence of fever and of the
essence of inflammation. Broussais had done much to destroy the
notion of fever as an entity, but by extravagances in other
directions he had discredited the value of his main propositions.
Yet, although, as Andral and other French physicians proved, it was
extravagant to say that all fevers take their origin from some
local inflammation, it was true and most useful to insist, as
Broussais vehemently insisted, that "fever" is no substance, but a
generalization drawn from symptoms common to many and various
diseases springing from many various and often local causes; from
causes agreeing perhaps only in the factor of elevation of the
temperature of the body. To the establishment of this new
conception the improvement and general use of the
clinical
thermometer gave invaluable advantages. This instrument, now
indispensable in our daily work at the bedside, had indeed long
been known both to physiologists (Haller) and to clinicians.
.^ Willems M, de Jong G, Moshage H, Verresen L, Goubau P, Desmyter J, Yap SH. Surrogate markers are not useful for identification of HCV carriers in chronic hemodialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
By his
almost exhaustive comparison of febrile movements as symptomatic
processes Wunderlich dealt the last blow to the expiring doctrine
of the "entity" of "fever"; while on the clinical side Bretonneau
and Louis, in 1862-1872, by their careful clinical and pathological
studies of forms of fever, relieved the new doctrine of the
extravagances of Broussais, and prepared the way for the important
distinction of enteric from
typhus fever by A. P.
Stewart
(1813-1883),
William Jenner, William Budd
(1811-1880), Charles Murchison (1830-1879), J. H. F. Autenrieth
(1772-1835),
Heinrich Gustav Magnus
(1802-1870), Huss and others. By the learned and accomplished
Armand Trousseau British and German influences were carried into
France.
Meanwhile Cohnheim and Metchnikoff were engaged in destroying
the ontological conception not of fever only, but also of
inflammation, of which, as a local event, an ontological conception
was no less strongly implanted. By his researches on the
migration of the white
corpuscles of the blood Cohnheim, on the bases laid by Virchow,
brought the processes of inflammation within the scope of the
normal, seeing in them but a modification of normal processes under
perturbations of relatively external incidence; even the formation
of
abscess was thus brought
by him within the limits of perversion of processes not differing
essentially from those of health; and "new formations," "plastic
exudations," and other discontinuous origins of an "essential"
pathology, fell into oblivion. And it is not alien from the present
point of view to turn for a moment to the light thrown on the
cardio-arterial pulse and the measurement of its motions by the
more intimate researches into the phenomena of the circulation by
many observers, among whom in the 19th century James Hope, E. J.
Marey (1830-1904) and C. F. W. Ludwig will always take a leading
place. By them the demonstration of Harvey that the circulation of
the blood is in large part a mechanical process, and nowhere
independent of mechanical laws, was considerably enlarged and
extended. In particular the fluctuations of the pulse in fevers and
inflammations were better understood, and accurately registered;
and we can scarcely realize now that before Harvey the time of the
pulse seems not to have been counted by the
watch. Discovery in these various directions then
led physicians to regard fever and inflammation not as separable
entities, but as fluctuating symptomgroups, due to swervings of
function from the normal balance under contingent forces.
.^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ No metabolic side effects as observed with dibutyryl-cAMP or 8-Br-cAMP. More lipophilic and membrane permeant than Sp-cAMPS. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
It is proper to point out here how intimately a pathology
thus regenerated modified current conceptions of disease, in the
linking of disease to oscillations of health, and the regarding
many diseases as modifications of the normal set up by the
impingement of external causes; not a few of which indeed may be
generated within the body itself - "autogenetic poisoning." The
appreciation of such modifications, and of the working of such
causes, has been facilitated greatly by the light thrown upon
normal processes by advances in physiology; so dependent is each
branch of knowledge upon the advances of contiguous and incident
studies. To biological chemistry we have been deeply indebted
during the latter half of the 19th century. In 1872, Hoppe-Seyler
(1825-1895) gave a new beginning to our knowledge of the chemistry
of secretion and of
excretion; and later students have increased
the range of physiological and pathological chemistry by
investigations not only into the several stages of albuminoid
material and the transitions which all foodstuffs undergo in
digestion, but even into the structure of
protoplasm itself.
.^ Opatrny K Jr, Opatrny K, Vit L, Racek J, Valek A. What are the factors contributing to the changes in tissue-type plasminogen activator during haemodialysis?- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A citation may appear in more than one category.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ An aldonic acid formed by the oxidation of the carbonyl carbon of glucose in microorganisms, plants, and animals.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Most widely occurring ecdysteroid in both plant and animal species.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ There is no order too large or small for Metal Associates to process, so call today.
Now as our own
bodies thus manipulate substances poisonous and antidotal, if in
every hour of health we are averting selfintoxication, so likewise
are we concerned with the various intruding organisms, whose
processes of digestion are as dangerous as our own; if these
destructive agents, which no doubt are incessantly gaining
admission to our bodies, do not meet within us each its appropriate
compensatory defensive
agent,
dissolution will begin. Thus, much of infection and
immunity are proving to be
but special cases of digestion, and teleological conceptions of
protective processes are modified.
Under the name of
chemotaxis (W. Pfeffer) are designated
certain of the regulative adaptations by which such ends are
attained. By chemical warnings the defensive processes seem to be
awakened, or summoned; and when we think of the
infinite variety of such possible phases, and
of the multitude of corresponding defensive agents, we may form
some dim notion of the complexity of the animal blood and tissues,
and within them of the organic molecules.
.^ A novel non-thiol-based NO donor which releases NO under physiological conditions with a half-life of 1.7 minutes.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Half-life under physiological conditions is 5 minutes.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
As a part of these discoveries
has arisen another but kindred doctrine that of hormones
(Starling), juices prepared, not for excretion, not even for
partial excretion, but for the fulfilment of physiological
equilibrium. Thus the
reciprocity of the
various organs, maintained throughout the divisions of
physiological labour, is not merely a mechanical stability; it is
also a mutual equilibration in functions incessantly at work on
chemical levels, and on those levels of still higher complexity
which seem to rise as far beyond chemistry as chemistry beyond
physics.
.^ Kendomycin is a potent antibacterial agent against Gram positive and negative bacteria including MRSA strains.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Cell-permeable alkaloid containing indole/maleimide/imidazole skeleton that acts as a potent and ATP-competitive inhibitor of Chk1 and GSK-3β.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Exhibits potent activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis; inactive against most other bacteria.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Thus endowed, the
blood, unless overwhelmed by extraordinary invasions, does not fail
in stability and self-
purification.
.^ A novel non-thiol-based NO donor which releases NO under physiological conditions with a half-life of 1.7 minutes.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Potent neurotoxin found in the skin of various poisonous frogs.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Grayanotoxin III is one member of a family of toxic diterpenoids found in Rhododendron species.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In the preservation of immunity then, in its various degrees and
kinds, not only is the chemistry of the blood to be studied, but
also its histology. By his eminent labours in cellular pathology,
Virchow, and Metchnikoff later, gave the last blow to the mere
humoral pathology which, after an almost unchallenged prevalence
for some two thousand years, now finds a resting-place only in our
nurseries.
.^ Turi S, Nemeth I, Varga I, Bodrogi T, Matkovics B. The effect of erythropoietin on the cellular defence mechanism of red blood cells in children with chronic renal failure.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Gangliosides are highly purified sialic acid-containing glycolipids that are useful as markers of various cell types and antigens.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Induces apoptosis in various cell types and cell lines by a mechanism involving cellular uptake and possible direct stimulation of procaspase-3 autoprocessing.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Again, not only in certain diseases may strange cells be
found in the blood (e.g. in myelogenic leucaemia), but parasites
also, both in man, as those of
malaria, of
sleeping sickness, of
kala-azar, and in animals,
as redwater,
Texas fever,
n'gana, have been discovered, to the great advantage of preventive
medicine. For some of these, as redwater (pyrosoma), antidotes are
already found; for others, as for Texas fever - of which the
parasite is unknown, but the
mode of its transmission, by the
mosquito, discovered (Finlay-Reed) -
preventive measures are reducing the prevalence.
It is obvious that the results of such advances prescribe for
the clinical physician methods which cannot be pursued without
expert assistance; a physician
engaged in busy prac-
Spec;a;ism. t
i ce cannot
himself undertake even the verifications required in the conduct of
individual cases. Skill in modern laboratory work is as far out of
the reach of the untaught as performance on a musical instrument.
In spite, therefore, of the encyclopaedic tradition which has
persisted from Aristotle through the Arab and medieval schools down
to
Herbert
Spencer, it is forced upon us in our own day that in a pursuit
so manysided as medicine, whether in its scientific or in its
practical aspect, we have to submit more and more to that division
of labour which has been a condition of advance in all other walks
of life.
.^ Knight F, Gorynski L, Bentson M, Harmon W. Chronic hemodialysis as a treatment for the infant or small child with end stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Fine RN. Choice of treatment modality for the infant, child and adolescent with end-stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
That the division of labour, which may seem to
disintegrate the calling of the physician, really unites it, is
well seen in the clinical laboratories which were initiated in the
later 19th century, and which are destined to a great future. By
the approach of skilled pathologists to the clinical wards, a link
is forged between practitioners and the men of science who pursue
pathology disinterestedly. The first clinical laboratory seems to
have been that of Von Ziemssen (1829-1902) at
Munich, founded in 1885; and, although his
example has not yet been followed as it ought to have been, enough
has been done in this way, at
Johns Hopkins University and
elsewhere, to prove the vital importance of the system to the
progress of modern medicine. At the same time provision must be
made for the integration of knowledge as well as for the winning of
it by several adits. A conspicuous example of the incalculable evil
wrought by lack of integration is well seen in the radical
divorce of surgery from
medicine, which is one of the most mischievous legacies of the
middle ages - one whose
mischief is scarcely yet fully recognized, and
yet which is so deeply rooted in our institutions, in the United
Kingdom at any rate, as to be hard to obliterate. That the methods
and the subject-matter of surgery and of medicine are substantially
the same, and that the advance of one is the advance of the other,
the division being purely artificial and founded merely on
accidents of personal bent and skill, must be insisted upon at this
time of our history. The distinction was never a scientific one,
even in the sense in which the word science can be used of the
middle ages; it originated in social conceits and in the contempt
for mechanical arts which came of the cultivation of "ideas" as
opposed to converse with "matter," and which, in the dawn of modern
methods, led to the derision of Boyle by Oxford humanists as one
given up to "base and mechanical pursuits." Had physicians been
brought into contact with facts as hard as those faced by the
surgeons of the 16th century (cf. Ambrose Pare), their art would
not have lain so long in degradation.
.^ A stable NO-amine complex that can spontaneously release two equivalents of NO in solution under physiological conditions without any cofactor.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ No metabolic side effects as observed with dibutyryl-cAMP or 8-Br-cAMP. More lipophilic and membrane permeant than Sp-cAMPS. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Medicine and surgery are but
two aspects of one art; Pasteur
shed light on both surgery and medicine, and when
Lister, his disciple, penetrated into the secrets of
wound fevers and septicaemia, he
illuminated surgery and medicine alike, and, in the one sphere as
in the other, co-operated in the destruction of the idea of
"essential fevers" and of inflammation as an "entity." Together,
then, with the necessary multiplication of specialism, one of the
chief lessons of the latter moiety of the 19th century was the
unity of medicine in all its branches - a unity strengthened rather
than weakened by special researches, such as those into "medical"
and "surgical" pathology, which are daily making more manifest the
absurdity of the distinction. Surgeons, physicians, oculists,
laryngologists, gynaecologists, neurologists and the rest, all are
working in
allotments of the same
field, and combining to a common
harvest.
While pathology then, which is especially the "science of
medicine," was winning territory on one side from physiology,. of
which in a sense it is but an aspect, and on another by making
ground of its own in the post mortem room
.^ Water soluble and stable nitric oxide radical scavenger that shows in chemical and biological systems antagonistic action against the free nitric oxide radical (NO·).- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Yet it was scarcely until the last
quarter of the 19th century that the
apprenticeship system, which was a mere
initiation into the
art and
mystery of a craft,
was recognized as antiquated and, in its virtual exclusion of
academic study, even mischievous. In place of it, systematic
clinical classes have become part of the scheme of every efficient
school of medicine. A condition of this reform was the need of a
preliminary training of the mind of the pupil in pure science, even
in physics and chemistry; that is to say, before introduction into
his professional studies. The founding of new teaching
universities, in which England, and even France, had been at some
disadvantage as compared with Scotland and Germany, strengthened
the movement in favour of enlarging and liberalizing technical
training, and of anticipating technical instruction by some broader
scientific discipline; though, as in all times of transition,
something was lost temporarily by a departure from the old
discipline of the grammar school before a new scheme of training
the mind in scientific habits and conceptions was established or
fully apprehended. Yet on the whole, even from the beginning, the
revolt was useful in that it shook the position of the "learned
physician," who took a literary, fastidious and meditative rather
than an experimental interest in his profession, and, as in great
part a descendant of the humanists, was never in full sympathy with
experimental science. At the risk no doubt of some defects of
culture, the newer education cleared the way for a more positive
temper, awoke a new sense of
accuracy and of verification, and created a sceptical attitude
towards all conventions, whether of argument or of practice. Among
the drawbacks of this temper, which on the whole made for progress,
was the rise of a school of excessive
scepticism, which, forgetting the value of
the accumulated stores of empiricism, despised those degrees of
moral certainty that, in so complex a study and so tentative a
practice as medicine, must be our portion for the present, and even
for a long future, however great the triumphs of medicine may
become. This scepticism took form in the school, most active
between 1860 and 1880, known as the school of "Expectant Medicine."
.^ Yamamoto Y, Fujimoto S, Eto T. Long-term outcome of chronic hemodialysis patients [abstract].- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Barre PE. The natural history of myocardial disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Iseki K, Kawazoe N, Fukiyama K. Predictive values of clinical indices on survival in chronic hemodialysis patients a short-term prospective study [abstract].- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
But to sit down helpless before human suffering is an
unendurable attitude.
.^ Clinically useful cancer therapeutic agent.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Reverse transcriptase inhibitor, IC 50 =0.26 µM. Potent antiviral agent, IC90=50 nM. Clinically useful therapeutic agent for HIV-1 infection and AIDS. .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Furthermore, the aversion from drugging had the advantage of
directing men's minds to remedies taken from the region of the
physical forces, of
electricity (G. B. Duchenne, 1806-1875), of
gymnastics (Ling, 1776-1839), of
hydropathy (V. Priessnitz), of
massage (Weir
Mitchell), of climate (James
Clarke), of diet (R. B. Todd, King Chambers, &c.), and even of
hypnotism (James
Braid 1 795 ? - 1860), while
with the improvement of the means of locomotion came the renewal of
the old faith and the establishment of new methods in the use of
mineral springs.
.^ Tyrosine kinase inhibitor used in the treatment of drug resistant myelogenous leukemia with promising results often resulting in full recovery of white blood cell count.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ This process is often used in labeling saccharides with fluorescent molecules or other tags such as biotin.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Again, a like spirit dictated the use of the physical or
"natural" methods on a larger scale in the field of prevention.
From the new regard given by physiologists and pathologists to the
study of origins, and in the new hopes of thus dealing with disease
at its springs, not in individuals only but in cities and nations,
issued the great school of Preventive Medicine, initiated in
England - E. A. Parkes (1819-1876), J. Simon, Sir B. W. Richardson
(1828-1896), Sir H. W. Acland (1815-1900), Sir G. Buchanan
(1831-1895), and forwarded in Germany by
Max von Pettenkofer
(1818-1901). Hygiene became for pathology what "milieu" is for
physiology. By the modification of physical conditions on a
national scale a prodigious advance was made in the art of
preventing disease. The ghastly roll of infantile mortality was
quickly purged of its darkest features (Ballard and others); aided
by bacteriology, sanitary measures attained some considerable
degree of exactness; public medicine gained such an ascendancy that
special training and diplomas were offered at universities; and in
1875 a consolidated act was passed for the United Kingdom
establishing medical officers of health, and responsible lay
sanitary authorities, with no inconsiderable powers of enforcing
the means of public health in rural, urban, port and other
jurisdictions, with summary methods of procedure.
.^ U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Public Health Service National Institutes of Health .- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The enormous growth of towns during the second half of the 19th
century was thus attended with comparative safety to these great
aggregates of mankind; and the death-rates, so far from being
increased, relatively decreased in substantial proportions. In 1878
an act was passed giving like powers in the case of the infectious
diseases of animals. The establishment in England of the
Register of qualified
practitioners and of the General Medical Council (in 1858) did
something, however imperfectly, to give unity to the profession,
unhappily bisected by "the two colleges"; and did much to organize,
to strengthen and to purify medical education and qualification. In
1876 women were admitted to the Register kept by the Council. In
1871 the Anatomical Act of 1832 was amended; and in 1876 the
Vivisection Act was
passed, a measure which investigators engaged in the medical
sciences of physiology and pathology resented as likely to prevent
in England the advance of knowledge of living function, both in its
normal balance and in its aberrancies, and moreover to slacken that
habit of incessant reference of propositions to verification which
is as necessary to the clinical observer as to the experimentalist.
However the opinion of later generations may stand in respect of
the Vivisection Act, it will surely appear to them that the other
acts, largely based upon the results of experimental methods,
strengthening and consolidating the medical profession, and
fortifying the advance of medical education, led directly to a
fundamental change in the circumstances of the people in respect of
health. The intelligent classes have become far better educated in
the laws of health, and less disposed to quackery; the less
intelligent are better cared for and protected by municipal and
central authority.
.^ Canepa A, Perfumo F, Carrea A, Giallongo F, Verrina E, Cantaluppi A, Gusmano R. Long-term effect of amino-acid dialysis solution in children on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
During the latter half of the 19th century the death-rate of many
towns was reduced by something like 50%. Some plagues, such as
typhus fever, have been dispelled; others, such as enteric fever,
have been almost banished from large areas; and there is much
reason to hope that
cholera
and plague, if introduced, could not get a footing in western
Europe, or in any case could be combated on scientific principles,
and greatly reduced.
Temperance in the use of
alcohol has followed the demonstration not only
of its unimportance as a food or tonic, but also of its
harmfulness, save in very small quantities. In the earlier part of
the 19th century, and in remoter districts even in its later years,
the use of alcohol was regarded not as a mere
indulgence, but as essential to health; the
example of teetotallers, as seen in private life and in the returns
of the
insurance
offices, has undermined this prepossession. From the time of
Plato medicine has been accused of
ministering to the survival of unfit persons, and to their
propagation of children. But bodily defect is largely a result of
evil circumstances, in the prevention of which the physician is not
unsuccessfully engaged, and the growth of sympathy means a stronger
cement of the social
structure. At any rate the mean standard of health will be raised,
perhaps enormously.
In the tropics, as well as in Europe, such methods and such
researches threw new light upon the causes and paths of the
terrible infections of these climates. In 1880, two years before
Koch discovered the bacillus of
tubercle, C. L. A. Laveran (b.
.^ A diketopiperazine related metabolite found active against the malaria parasite P. falciparum, to have pronounced plant growth regulatory activity and devoid of antifungal or antibacterial activity.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Before the end of the
19th century this discovery of the blood parasite of malaria was
crowned by the hypothesis of Patrick Manson, proved by Ronald Ross,
that malaria is propagated by a certain genus of
gnat, which acts as an intermediate host of the
parasite. Cholera (Haffkine) and
yellow fever are yielding up their
secrets, and falling under some control. The 10th century, by means
of this
illumination of one of the darkest regions
of disease, may diminish human suffering enormously, and may make
habitable rich and beautiful regions of the earth's surface now, so
far as man's work is concerned, condemned to sterility. Moreover,
freedom of trade and of travel has been promoted by a reform of the
antiquated, cumbrous, and too often futile methods of
quarantine - a reform as
yet very far from complete, but founded upon a better understanding
of the nature and propagation of disease.
Special Departments
Hitherto we have presented a survey of the progress of the
science and practice of medicine on general. lines; it remains to
give some indication of the advance of these subjects of study and
practice in particular departments. As regards infections, it is
not to be supposed that our knowledge of these maladies has been
advanced by pathology and bacteriology only. In the clinical field
also it has received a great enlargement.
.^ Current Bibliographies in Medicine (CBM) is a continuation in part of the National Library of Medicine's Literature Search Series, which ceased in 1987 with No.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Influenza,
again, was well known to us in 1836-1840, yet clinical observers
had not traced out those sequels which, in the form of neuritis and
mental disorder, have impressed upon our minds the persistent
virulence of this infection, and the manifold forms of its
activity. By the discovery of the bacillus of tubercle, the
physician has been enabled to piece together a long and varied list
of maladies under several names, such as scrofula and
lupus, many of them long suspected
to be tuberculous, but now known to belong to the series. It is on
clinical grounds that beriberi,
scarlet fever, measles, &c., are
recognized as belonging to the same class, and evolving in phases
which differ not in intimate nature but in the more superficial and
inessential characters of time, rate and polymorphism; and the
impression is gaining strength that acute
rheumatism belongs to the group of the
infections, certain sore throats, chorea and other apparently
distinct maladies being terms of this series. Thus the field of
disease arising not from essential defect in the body, but from
external contingencies, is vastly enlarging; while on the other
hand the great variability of individuals in susceptibility
explains the very variable results of such extrinsic causes.
Coincidently therewith, the hope of neutralizing infections by
fortifying individual immunity has grown brighter, for it appears
that immunity is not a very radical character, but one which, as in
the case of vaccination, admits of modification and accurate
adjustment in the
individual, in no long time and by no very tedious methods.
Evidence is accumulating which may end in the explanation and
perhaps in the prevention of the direst of human woes -
cancer
itself, though at present inquiry is being directed rather to
intrinsic than to extrinsic
causes.
.^ The two diastereomers may be separated by silica gel chromatography providing 8(R) (more polar) and 8(S) (less polar) hepoxilins.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
It is in this department, from its abstruseness
and complexity, that we should expect the advance of anatomy and
physiology - normal and morbid - to be most delayed. If we consult
the medical works even of the middle of the 19th century we shall
find that, in the light of the present time, accurate knowledge in
this sphere, whether clinical, pathological or therapeutical, could
scarcely be said to exist. Even in the hands of J. A. Lockhart
Clarke (1817-1880), one of the earliest investigators of nervous
pathology, the improvement of the compound
microscope had not attained the
achromatism, the
penetration and the magnification which have since enabled J. L. C.
Schroeder-van der Kolk (1797-1862),
Albert von K0111ker,
Santiago Ramon
y
Cajal, C. Golgi (b.
.^ Phosphomolybdic acid, also known as dodeca molybdophosphoric acid or PMA is a component of Masson's trichrome stain.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In England the Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic was founded
in 1859, where Charles E. BrownSequard (1817-1894), J. Hughlings-
Jackson, Thomas
Buzzard,
Henry C. Bastian (b. 1837), Sir W. R. Gowers and
David Ferrier (b. 1843) found an adequate field for the clinical
and pathological parts of their work.
.^ Godai K, Uemasu J, Kawasaki H. Clinical significance of serum and urinary neopterins in patients with chronic renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Nissenson AR, Nimer SD, Wolcott DL. Recombinant human erythropoietin and renal anemia: molecular biology, clinical efficacy, and nervous system effects.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Suwata J, Maeda H, Ohmori N, Ohwa M, Ohtsuka H, Shimoyama H. Recombinant human erythropoietin therapy and autonomic nervous system.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Bis-coclaurine alkaloid used for centuries in Chinese traditional medicine for cardiovascular diseases.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Used in the stimulation of β-galactosidase in cellular systems in which dioxane would disrupt normal cell function.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Nor was the theory of reflex action confined to the more
"mechanical" functions. By G. H.
Lewes and others the doctrine of "cerebral
reflex" was suggested, whereby actions, at first achieved only by
incessant attention, became organized as conscious or subconscious
habits; as for instance in the playing on musical or other
instruments, when acts even of a very elaborate kind may directly
follow the impulses of sensations, conscious
adaptation and the deliberate choice of
means being thus economized.
.^ Chemical functional groupings may be viewed by clicking here .- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Tokars JI, Alter MJ, Favero MS, Moyer LA, Bland LA. National surveillance of hemodialysis associated diseases in the United States, 1990.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Tannen R, Jacobson H. Summary of the joint National Institutes of Health/Renal Physician's Association workshop on dialysis, morbidity and mortality.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
By similar methods nature, unassisted,
betrays herself but too often; in many instances - probably
originating primarily in the nervous tissues themselves - the
course of disease is observed to follow certain paths with
remarkable consistency, as for instance in diseases of particular
tracts of the spinal cord.
.^ A five times more potent inhibitor of endothelial cell NOS than other arginine analogs such as L-NAME and L-NMMA. Inhibits NO production in endothelial cytosol.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Potent, selective CysLT1 receptor antagonist sold under the trade name Singulair for the treatment of asthma as well as for the symptoms associated with allergic rhinitis.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
^ Cefali EA, Poynor WJ, Sica D, Cox S. Pharmacokinetic comparison of flurbiprofen in end-stage renal disease subjects and subjects with normal renal function.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ McCarthy JT, Hodgson SF, Fairbanks VF, Moyer TP. Clinical and histologic features of iron-related bone disease in dialysis patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Current Bibliographies in Medicine (CBM) is a continuation in part of the National Library of Medicine's Literature Search Series, which ceased in 1987 with No.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Diseases of the latter
kind are especially interesting, as in them we see that parts of
the nervous structure, separated in space, may nevertheless be
associated in function; for instance, wasting of a group of muscles
associated in function may depend on a set of central degenerations
concurring in parts whose connexion, in spite of
dissociation in
space, we thus perceive. The undiscriminating diseases, on the
other hand, we suspect not to be primarily of nervous origin, but
to depend rather on the agency of other constituent tissues of this
system, as of the blood-vessels or the connective elements. Thus,
arguing inversely, we may learn something of the respective natures
of these influences and of the way in which the nervous system is
affected secondarily.
Yet even the distribution of toxic matters by the blood is not
necessarily followed by general and indiscriminate injury to the
nervous elements. In infantile palsy, for example, and in tabes
dorsalis, there is good reason to believe
of that,
definitely as the traces of the disease are found in certain
physiologically distinct nervous elements, they are due
nevertheless to toxic agents arriving by way of the blood. Here we
enter upon one of the most interesting chapters of disorders and
modes of disorder of this and of other systems. It has come out
more and more clearly of late years that poisons do not betray even
an approximately indifferent affinity for all tissues, which indeed
a little reflection would tell us to be a priori improbable, but
that each tends to fix itself to this
cell group or to that, picking out parts for which
they severally have affinities. Chemical, physiological and
pathological research is exploring the secret of these more refined
kinds of "anchorage" of molecules.
.^ Intracellularly converted into L-cysteine, the rate-limiting precursor of glutathione and thus can be used to increase glutathione levels.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
The number of these
instances, and the variety of them, are now known to be very large;
and it is supposed that what is true of these simpler agents is
true also of far more elaborate phases of vital
metabolism. Now, what is
remarkable in these and many other reactions is not only that
effects apparently very opposite may result from minute differences
of molecular construction, but also that, whatever the
construction, agents, not wholly indifferent to the body or part,
tend to
anchor themselves to
organic molecules in some way akin to them. Highly complex as are
all animal tissues, or nearly all, yet in this category of high
complexity are degrees higher and higher again of which we can form
little conception, so elaborate they are, so peculiar in their
respective properties, and probably so fugitive. It is this wide
range of dynamic peculiarities above the common range of known
physical and chemical molecules which excites our wonder; and a
reflection of these peculiar properties is seen in their affinities
for this or that toxic or constructive agent, whereby the
peculiarity, for example, of a particular kind of
nerve cell may be altered, antagonized,
reinforced or converted.
.^ This process is often used in labeling saccharides with fluorescent molecules or other tags such as biotin.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Of such probably are the toxins and antitoxins
of certain infections, which, anchoring themselves not by any means
indiscriminately, but to particular and concerted molecules, by
such anchorage antagonize them or turn them to favourable or
unfavourable issues.
.^ May act as a bacterial toxin receptor (tetanus, botulinus).- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ It is a glomerular epithelial cell toxin which may be used to induce nephropathy in laboratory animals.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
It is
convenient here to add that such reactions and modifications, if
more conspicuous in the nervous system, are of course not confined
to it, but are concerned in their degree in all the processes of
metabolism, being most readily traced by us in the blood.
Many other diseases formerly regarded as primarily diseases of
the nervous system are not such; but, by means of agents either
introduced into the body or modified there, establish themselves
after the affinities of these in contiguous associated parts of the
structure, as in vascular, membranous or connective elements, or
again in distant and peripheral parts; the perturbations of nervous
function being secondary and consequential. Of such are tetanus and
diphtheria, now known to be due to the establishment from without
of a local microbic infection, from which
focus a toxin is diffused to the nervous matter.
The terrible nervous sequels of some forms of inflammation of the
membranes of the brain, again, are due primarily to microbic
invasion rather of the membranes than of their nervous contents;
and many other diseases may be added to this list. The grave
palsies in such diseases as influenza, diphtheria, beriberi, or
ensuing on the absorption of lead, are in the main not central, but
due to a symmetrical peripheral neuritis.
.^ Kamata K, Marumo F, Onoyama K. Hemodynamic mechanism of the elevation in blood pressure following the improvement of anemia with recombinant human erythropoietin.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Bosutinib can overcome not only Bcr-Abl-dependent mechanisms of resistance, but also those that are Bcr-Abl-independent.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ Ono K, Hisasue Y. The rate of increase in hematocrit, humoral vasoactive substances and blood pressure changes in hemodialysis patients treated with recombinant human erythropoietin or blood transfusion.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Ofsthun NJ, Jensen JC, Kray M. Effect of high hematocrit and high blood flow rates on transmembrane pressure and ultrafiltration rate in hemodialysis.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Kamata K, Marumo F, Onoyama K. Hemodynamic mechanism of the elevation in blood pressure following the improvement of anemia with recombinant human erythropoietin.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ This process is often used in labeling saccharides with fluorescent molecules or other tags such as biotin.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
.^ McClellan WM, Anson C, Birkeli K, Tuttle E. Functional status and quality of life: predictors of early mortality among patients entering treatment for end stage renal disease.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Not of. less importance in this respect, and in other disorders
many of them of grave incidence, is the knowledge of the phenomena
of
embolism and of
thrombosis, also gained during
the latter half of the 19th century - W. S. Kirkes (1823-1864), R.
Virchow. By embolism is meant the more or less sudden stoppage of a
vessel by a plug of solid matter carried thither by the current of
the blood; be it a little clot from the heart or, what is far more
pernicious, an infective fragment from some focus of infection in
the body, by which messengers new foci of infection may be
scattered about the body. Thrombosis is an
accident of not dissimilar character, whereby
a vessel is blocked not by a travelling particle, but by a clotting
of the blood
in situ, probably on the occasion of some
harm to the epithelial lining of the vessel. Such injuries are apt
to occur in syphilitic endarteritis, or senile arterial decay,
whereby an artery may be blocked permanently, as if with an
embolus, and the area supplied by it, in so far as it was dependent
upon this vessel, deprived of nutrition. These events, although far
more mischievous in the brain, the functions of which are
far-reaching, and the
collateral circulation of which is
ill-provided, are seen very commonly in other parts.
It is in the structure of the brain itself that modern research
has attained the most remarkable success. In 1861 an alleged
"centre" of speech was detected, by a combination of clinical and
pathological researches, by
Paul Broca (1824-1880). By these means also,
in the hands of Hughlings-Jackson, and more conclusively by
experimental research initiated by G. T. Fritsch (b. 1838) and T.
E. Hitzig (b. 1838), but pursued independently and far more
systematically and thoroughly by David Ferrier (b. 1843) and his
disciples, it was proved that the cerebrum is occupied by many such
centres or exchanges, which preside over the formulation of
sensations into purposive groups of motions - kinaesthesis of H.
Charlton Bastian (b. 1837). The results of these experimental
researches by many inquirers into the constitution of the brain
have transformed our conceptions of cerebral physiology, and thrown
a
flood of light on the diseases
of the brain. Not only so, but this mapping of the brain in areas
of function now often enables the clinical physician to determine
the position of disease; in a certain few cases of
tumour or abscess, so precisely
that he may be enabled to open the
skull above the part affected and to extirpate it
- operations which are surely a triumph of science and technical
skill (Lister, W. MacEwen, V. Horsley).
The remarkable discovery of the dual nature of the nervous
system, of its duplex development as a lower and upper system of
"neurons," has shed much light upon the problems of practical
medicine, but this construction is described under
Brain;
Neuropathology; Muscle And Nerve,
&C.
In
mental diseases little of first-rate importance has
been done.
.^ Reduces cell death induced by glutamate in primary cultures derived from forebrain, hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum of embryonic rat brain.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Some infections, however,
seem to attack the mental fabric directly; intrinsic toxic
processes which may be suspected on the detection of neurin and
cholin in the fluids of the brain (F. W. Mott). Truer conceptions
of normal
psychology
have transformed for us those of the morbid - P. Pinel (1745-1826),
Griesinger, Henry Maudsley (b. 1835), Mercier, Krapelin, Rivers -
and indicated more truly the relations of sanity to insanity. In
the treatment of insanity little has been done but to complete the
non-
restraint system
which in principle belongs to the earlier part of the 19th century
(Pinel,
Tuke, R. G. Hill, J.
Conolly). An enormous accumulation of lunatics of all sorts and
degrees seems to have paralysed public authorities, who, at vast
expense in buildings, mass them more or less indiscriminately in
barracks, and expect that
their sundry and difficult disorders can be properly studied and
treated by a medical
superintendent charged with the whole
domestic establishment, with a few young assistants under him.
.^ Ruedin P, Pechere Bertschi A, Chapuis B, Benedet P, Leski M. Safety and efficacy of recombinant human erythropoietin treatment of anaemia associated with multiple myeloma in haemodialysed patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Evans RW. Recombinant human erythropoietin and the quality of life of end-stage renal disease patients: a comparative analysis.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ McMahon LP, Dawborn JK. Subjective quality of life assessment in hemodialysis patients at different levels of hemoglobin following use of recombinant human erythropoietin.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
A considerable step in
advance is the establishment by the London County Council of a
central laboratory for its asylums, with an eminent pathologist at
its head: from this laboratory valuable reports are in course of
issue. Provision for the reception and treatment of insanity in its
earliest and more curable stages can scarcely be said to exist.
Sufferers from mental disease are still regarded too much as
troublesome persons to be hidden away in humane keeping, rather
than as cases of manifold and obscure disease, to be studied and
treated by the undivided attention of physicians of the highest
skill. The care and education of idiots, initiated by Guggenbuhl
and others, is making way in England, and if as yet insufficient,
is good of its kind.
By the genius of Rene Theophile Laennec (1781-1826),
diseases of the lungs and heart were laid on a foundation
so broad that his successors have been occupied in detail and
refinement rather than in reconstruction.
.^ Yamada K, Nakayama M, Miura Y, Nakano H, Mimura N, Yoshida S. Role of AVP in the regulation of vascular tonus and blood pressure in patients with chronic renal failure.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ Cloarec-Blanchard L, Girard A, Houhou S, Grunfeld JP, Elghozi JL. Spectral analysis of short-term blood pressure and heart rate variability in uremic patients.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ A competitive antagonist of muscarinic cholinergic synapses in the central and peripheral nervous systems.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Moreover, the intricacies of structure and function within the
heart itself have been more fully discriminated (W. H. Gaskell,
Aschoff, A.
Keith, Wenkebach, J.
Mackenzie). By the greater
thoroughness of our knowledge of the physics of the circulation -
Etienne Marey (b. 1830), Karl Ludwig (1816-1895),
Leonard
Hill - we have attained to a better conception of such events
as arterial disease,
apoplexy, "
shock," and so forth; and pharmacologists have
defined more precisely the virtues of curative drugs. To the
discovery of the parts played in disease by thrombosis and embolism
we have referred above. With this broader and more accurate
knowledge of the conditions of the health of the circulation a
corresponding efficiency has been gained in the manipulation of
certain remedies and new methods of treatment of heart diseases,
especially by
baths and
exercises.
.^ Rosansky SJ, Jackson K. Rate of change of end-stage renal disease treatment incidence 1978-1987--has there been selection?- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ O'Doherty MJ, Breen D, Page C, Barton I, Nunan TO. Lung 99mTc DTPA transfer in renal disease and pulmonary infection.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Instead
of the close protection from the outer
air, the respirators, and the fancy diets of our
fathers, the modern
poitrinaire camps out in the open air
in all weathers, is fed with solid food, and in his exercise and
otherwise is ruled with minute particularity according to the
indications of the clinical thermometer and other symptoms.
.^ The purpose of the Conference was to examine all of the relevant data concerning the delivery of maintenance dialysis and the management of associated life-threatening complications.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Bambauer R, Mestres P, Pirrung KJ. Frequency, therapy, and prevention of infections associated with large bore catheters.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
.^ Tsai TJ, Tsai HF, Chen YM, Hsieh BS, Chen WY, Yen TS. CAPD in patients unable to do their own bag change.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
^ The two diastereomers may be separated by silica gel chromatography providing 8(R) (more polar) and 8(S) (less polar) hepoxilins.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
Perhaps no advance in medicine has done so
much as the study of tuberculosis to educate the public in the
methods and value of research in medical subjects, for the results,
and even the methods, of such labours have been brought home not
only to patients and their friends, but also to the farmer, the
dairyman, the
butcher, the
public
carrier, and, indeed,
to every home in the land.
It was in the management of pleurisies that the aid of surgical
means first became eminent in inward disease. In the treatment of
effusions into the pleura and, though with less advantage, of
pericardial effusions, direct mechanical interference was practised
by one physician and another, till these means of attaining rapid
and complete cure took their places as indispensable, and were
extended from thoracic diseases to those of the abdominal and other
inner parts formerly beyond the reach of direct therapeutics. Lord
Lister's discoveries brought these new methods to bear with a
certainty and a celerity previously undreamed of; and many visceral
maladies, such as visceral ulcers, disease of the
pancreas, stone of the kidney
or
gall-
bladder, perityphlitis, ovarian dropsy, which
in the earlier part of the 19th century were either fatal or
crippling, are now taken promptly and safely in hand, and dealt
with successfully. Even for internal cancer cure or substantial
relief is not infrequently obtained. We have said that this advance
is often quoted, not very wisely, to signify that in modern
progress "medicine" has fallen behind surgery - as if the art of
the physician were not one and indivisible. That certain Fellows of
the College of Physicians (especially in gynaecology) have
personally taken operative procedures in hand is some good
omen that in time the unreal and
mischievous
schism between
medicine and surgery may be bridged over.
In the department of
abdominal disease progress has
been made, not only in this enormous extension of means of cure by
operative methods, but also in the verification of diagnosis. The
first recognition of a disease may be at a necropsy, but then
usually by irresponsible pathologists; it is another matter when
the physician himself comes under rebuke for failing to seize a way
to cure, while the
chance
remained to him, by section of the
abdomen during life. The abdomen is still "full
of surprises"; and he who has most experience of this deceptive
region will have least confidence in expressing positive opinions
in particular cases of disease without operative investigation.
Besides the attainments mentioned above, in respect of operative
progress, many important revisions of older rule-of-thumb knowledge
have come about, and not a few other substantial discoveries. Among
the revisions may be adduced some addition to our knowledge of
dyspepsia, attained by
analytic investigations into
the contents of the stomach at various stages of digestion, and by
examining the passage of opaque substances through the
primae
vine by the Röntgen rays.
Thus the defects, whether of this secretion or of that, and again
of motor activity, the state of the valvular junctions, the volume
of the cavities, and their position in the abdomen, may be
ascertained, and dealt with as far as may be; so that, although the
fluctuations of chemical digestion are still very obscure, the
application of remedies after a mere traditional routine is no
longer excusable. In our conceptions of the later stages of
assimilation and of excretion, with the generation of poisons
(auto-intoxication) in the intestinal tract, there is still much
obscurity and much guess-work; yet in some directions positive
knowledge has been gained, partly by the physiologist, partly by
the physician himself. Of such are the better understanding of the
functions of the liver in normal
catabolism, in the neutralization of poisons
absorbed from the intestines or elsewhere, in the causation of
jaundice, and in diabetes [Bernhardt Naunyn (b. 1839) and F. W.
Pavy]. Nor must we forget the unfolding of a new chapter of
disease, in the nosology of the pancreas. In diabetes this organ
seems to play a part which is not yet precisely determined; and one
fell disease at least has been traced to a violent access of
inflammation of this organ, caused perhaps by entry of foreign
matters into its duct. The part of the pancreas in digestion also
is better understood. The part of the
spleen in the motley group of dyspepsias and
anaemias, conspicuous as it often is, still remains very
enigmatic.
The peritoneum is no longer regarded with awe as inviolable; by
modern methods, if not as manageable as other lymphatic sacs, it is
at any rate accessible enough without considerable risk to life.
Not only in its bacteriological relations are the conditions of
peritonitis recognized
in its various kinds, but also the state known as "shock" turns out
to be quasi-mechanical, and avoidable by measures belonging in
considerable part to this category.
.^ Olivas E, Jimenez C, Lopez A, Andres E, Sanchez Tarraga L. Reduction of the incidence of peritonitis in CAPD: effectiveness of heat sterilization of Safe.Lock connectors.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Our knowledge of diseases of the kidneys has made no great
advance since the time of Richard Bright. In the sphere of
physiology and in the interpretation of associated arterial
diseases much obscurity still remains; as, for instance, concerning
the nature of the toxic substances which produce those bilateral
changes in the kidneys which we call
Bright's disease, and bring about the
"uraemia" which is characteristic of it. Lardaceous disease,
however, here and in other regions, now appears to be due to the
specific toxins of pyogenetic micro-organisms. In stone of the
kidney a great advance has been made in treatment by operative
means, and the formation of these stones seems to recent observers
to depend less upon constitutional bent (gout) than upon unhealthy
local conditions of the passages, which in their turn again may be
due to the action of microorganisms.
To Thomas Addison's descriptions of certain anaemias, and of the
disease of the suprarenal capsules which bears his name, something
has been added; and W. Hunter's researches on the severer anaemias
are doing much to elucidate these subtle maladies. And on the
influence of these inconspicuous bodies and of the pituitary body
in sustaining arterial blood pressures physiologists have thrown
some important light.
The secret of the terrible puerperal septicaemia was read by J.
P. Semmelweiss (q.v.), wherein he proved himself to be the greatest
of Lister's forerunners (see Lister).
The
diseases peculiar to women (see
Gynaecology) have
received attention from early times, but little progress had been
made in their interpretation till the 19th century. In the middle
part of the century, by a natural exaggeration of the importance of
newly-discovered local changes in the pelvic organs, much harm was
done to women by too narrow an attention to the site, characters
and treatment of these; the meddlesomeness of the physician
becoming in the temperament of woman. a morbid obsession. To James
Matthews Duncan (1826-1890) we chiefly owe a saner and broader
comprehension of the relative importance of the local and the
general conditions which enter into the causation of uterine and
ovarian disorders. In operations for diseases of the
pelvis, ovarian dropsy, cancer of
the uterus, and other grave diseases of the region, success has
been stupendous.
.^ Marumo F, Shichiri M, Emori T, Ando K. Circulating and excreted forms of atrial natriuretic peptide in healthy subjects and patients with renal diseases.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
The comparison of observations in
various climates and peoples has had some weight; while in the
better knowledge of their causes their treatment has found
permanent advantage. Not only is the influence of bacteria in the
causation of many of them newly revealed, but it is now recognized
also that, even in skin diseases not initiated by microbic action,
microbes play a considerable and often a determining part in their
perpetuation; and that the rules of modern aseptic surgery are
applicable with no little success to skin therapeutics. We have
learned that "constitutional" causes play a smaller part in them
than was supposed, that a large number of diseases of the skin,
even if initiated by general disorder, are or soon become local
diseases, being, if not initiated by local infection yet
perpetuated thereby, so that, generally speaking, they are to be
cured by local means.
The
diseases of children have not lacked the renewed
attention, the successful investigation, and the valuable new
lights which have been given to other departments of medicine. That
infantile paralysis is an infection, and that its unhappy sequels
are now treated with more hope of restoration, has been indicated
already. Infantile
diarrhoea has also been recognized as a
common infection (Ballard), and the means of its avoidance and cure
ascertained. The conditions of diet and digestion in children are
now far better understood, and many of their maladies, formerly
regarded as organic or incomprehensible, are cured or prevented by
dietetic rules. Rickets,
scurvy and "marasmus" may be instanced as diet
diseases in children. Acute inflammation of the ear, with its
alarming extensions to the cerebral. cavity, is now dealt with
successfully by surgical means, and infected sinuses or even
encephalic abscesses are reached and cleansed. The origins, kinds
and processes of
meningitis are more clearly distinguished,
and referred each to its proper cause - for the most part
bacterial.
.^ Knabe C, Grosse-Siestrup C, Becker H, Pustelnik A, Gahl G. A new method to evaluate the CAPD-catheter-exit and other percutaneous devices.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Of such is the ophthalmoscope, invented by H.
von
.^ Willis R. Foster, M.D., Benjamin T. Burton, Ph.D., and M. James Scherbenske, Ph.D., National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases .- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
A remarkable help to the cure of headaches and wider
nervous disorders has come out of the better appreciation and
correction of errors of
refraction in the eye. Radiography has done
great things for surgery; for medicine its services are already
appreciable, and may prove more and more valuable hereafter. In
1879 the use of the spectroscope in medicine was pointed out by Dr
Charles A. MacMunn (b. 1852). By E.
du Bois-Reymond, Robert Remak
(1815-1865),
Carlo Matteucci (1811-1868), Guillaume
Duchenne (1806-1875), the value of electricity in medicine, greater
in diagnosis perhaps than in therapeutics, was demonstrated. By the
sphygmograph (E. J. Marey, 1863) attention was drawn to the
physical features of the circulation, to the signs of degeneration
of the arterial
tree, and less
definitely to the fluctuations of blood pressure; but as we have
said under the consideration of diseases of the heart, the
kymographs of Ludwig and his pupils brought out these fluctuations
far more accurately and completely. By these, and other instruments
of precision, such as the thermometer, of which we have already
spok en, the eminently scientific discipline of the measurement of
functional movements, so difficult in the complex science of
biology, has been cultivated. By the laryngoscope, invented about
1850 by Manuel Garcia the celebrated singingmaster, and perfected
by Johann Czermak (1828-1873) and others, the diseases of the
larynx also have been brought into the general light which has been
shed on all fields of disease; and many of them, previously known
more or less empirically, submitted to precise definition and cure.
Of such we may cite tuberculosis of the larynx, formerly as
incurable as distressing; and "
adenoids" - a disease revealed by intrascopic
methods - which used grievously to thwart and stifle the growth
both of mind and body in children, are now promptly removed, to the
infinite advantage of the rising generation. To the value of stains
in clinical diagnosis, especially in investigation of perversions
of the blood in many maladies, we have already made some reference.
The discovery of the Röntgen rays has also extended the physician's
power of vision, as in cases of aortic
aneurysm, and other thoracic diseases.
By
photography
and diagrammatic records the clinical work of hospital wards has
been brought into some better definition, and teaching made more
accurate and more impressive. The separation of the alkaloids
belongs rather to the earlier part of the 19th century, but the
administration of these more accurate medications by means of
hypodermic injection (see
Therapeutics) belongs to the latter. The
ancient practice of transfusion has been placed on a more
intelligible footing, and by the method of saline injections made
more manageable as a means of relief or even of cure.
.^ A citation may appear in more than one category.- Morbidity and Mortality of Dialysis (CBM 93-4) 6 February 2010 12:34 UTC www.nlm.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]
Among the achievements of the medicine of the 19th century the
growth of the medical press must not be forgotten. In England, by
the boldness of the
Lancet (founded in 182 3), the tyranny of
prescription, inveterate custom, and privilege abused was defied
and broken down; freedom of learning was regained, and promotion
thrown open to the competent, independently of family, gild and
professional status. For the record and
diffusion of rapidly growing knowledge,
learned
societies, universities and laboratories, greatly increased in
number and activity, issue their transactions in various fields;
and by means of yearbooks and central news-sheets the accumulation
of knowledge is organized and made accessible.
.^ NCI studies show lack of activity against tumors and AIDS. An interesting metabolite which has received little attention in modern times.- Chemicals 15 September 2009 5:17 UTC www.scbt.com [Source type: Academic]
In the
field of the History of Medicine the work of scholars such as
Francis
Adams of Banchory (1796-1861), William A. Greenhill (1814-1894)
and C. Creighton in England, Maximilien P. Littre (1801-1881) and
Charles V. Daremberg
(1817-1872) in France, and Heinrich Haser (1811-1888) and August
Hirsch, Diels, Weltmann and
Julius Pagel in Germany, will prove to our
children that tradition was as safe in our hands as progress
itself.
(T. C. A.) Bibliography. - Osler and McCrae,
Modern
Medicine; F. T. Roberts,
The Practice of Medicine
(1909); Hermann Nothnagel,
Internationale Beitrcige zur
inneren Medicin (1902); Ed. Brovardel,
Traite de
medecine (1895-1902); T. D. Savill,
Clinical Medicine
(1909); W. Osler,
The Principles and Practice of Medicine
(1909); Allbutt and Rolleston,
A System of Medicine
(1906-1910); Sir Patrick Manson,
Tropical Medicine (1907);
Frederick
Taylor,
A Manual
of the Practice of Medicine (1908).
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