From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.^ The garden, too, is watered, not by rainfall, but by a river which parts into different heads, as do the Tigris and Euphrates when they spread out upon the flat alluvial land below Baghdad.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ He supposedly ruled all of Sumer as well as some surrounding lands.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
[3][4]
.^ Mesopotamia; the Babylonian and Assyrian civilization.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC), the last of the great Assyrian kings, subdued Elam, east of Mesopotamia, and extended the empire to its greatest size.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Atlas of Mesopotamia; a survey of the history and civilization of Mesopotamia from the Stone Age to the fall of Babylon [New York] Nelson, 1962.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ Ashur-dan II establishes the Neo-Assyrian empire.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ This aspect of the Neo- Assyrian empire is often overshadowed by scholars' baffling preoccupation with the Assyrian military machine and its so-called "barbaric behavior".- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ He ruled from then on in relative peace until his death in 626 BC where the Assyrian empire started to fracture..Roads were built to enable the Assyrian armies to subdue rebels quickly.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ Mesopotamia; the Babylonian and Assyrian civilization.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC), the last of the great Assyrian kings, subdued Elam, east of Mesopotamia, and extended the empire to its greatest size.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Atlas of Mesopotamia; a survey of the history and civilization of Mesopotamia from the Stone Age to the fall of Babylon [New York] Nelson, 1962.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC), the last of the great Assyrian kings, subdued Elam, east of Mesopotamia, and extended the empire to its greatest size.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ At the beginning of his reign most of the south of Mesopotamia (Sumer) was under control by Lugalzaggesi.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ They began to control the area about 1900 B.C. During the next several hundred years, they conquered parts of Mesopotamia and Syria.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ At the beginning of his reign most of the south of Mesopotamia (Sumer) was under control by Lugalzaggesi.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ They began to control the area about 1900 B.C. During the next several hundred years, they conquered parts of Mesopotamia and Syria.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Empire unifies the Middle East, from Egypt to the Caspian Sea, under one rule and by so doing lays the foundation for the subsequent rise of the Persians, Hellenism, Christianity, and Islam.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Cyrus had to borrow the traditions of kingship from the Medes, who had ruled an empire when the Persians were merely their vassals.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ He ruled from then on in relative peace until his death in 626 BC where the Assyrian empire started to fracture..Roads were built to enable the Assyrian armies to subdue rebels quickly.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized Mesopotamian King List 2800 - 500 B.C. .- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Etymology
.^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ There is an unenviable competition between places situated in the region of Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf as to which can be the hottest.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Yet Mesopotamia is to-day a desert except for the regions in the immediate vicinity of the rivers.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The term
biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept and coined at the time of the
Aramaicization of the region, in the 10th century BCE.
[5] It is however widely accepted that early Mesopotamian societies simply referred to the entire
alluvium as
kalam in Sumerian (lit. "land").
.^ Before the war, when Mesopotamia was a more distant land than it is to-day, Basra was often referred to as the Venice of the East.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The later euphemisms are
Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th century Western encroachments.
[6]
History
Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia
The history of ancient Mesopotamia begins with the emergence of urban societies during the
Ubaid period, from ca.
.^ More than 15 centuries after its fall, the Roman Empire remains one of the most formative influences on the history of Europe.- DeeperStudy Bookstore: Bible Study Reference Books 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC deeperstudy.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ It is newly founded around 2350 BCE. Sargon establishes an empire consisting of the entire region of southern Mesopotamia and the region along the Euphrates in northern Mesopotamia, possibly extending to Lebanon.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Around 2350 BCE an important change took place: the conversion from local competing city states to the first regional state, an empire in Mesopotamia.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ An old house in Mesopotamia in which Sinbad the Sailor had not lived would be equivalent to one of England's ancient country mansions in which Queen Elizabeth had never slept.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ From its humble origins as a cluster of rival chiefdoms along the banks of the Nile, ancient Egypt rose to become one of the most advanced civilizations of its time.- DeeperStudy Bookstore: Bible Study Reference Books 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC deeperstudy.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ At first our road ran along the quays by the river side.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The first general impression of Basra is that of an unending series of quays along a river not unlike the Thames at Tilbury.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The old Assyrian city-state and its colonies.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Not only does it illustrate the geography of the Holy City, but provide useful diagrams of major archaeological finds as well.- DeeperStudy Bookstore: Bible Study Reference Books 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC deeperstudy.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The inscriptions and reliefs from this city, to which the king moved from Nineveh, are the principal historical source for the reign.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ The old Assyrian city-state and its colonies.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized Mesopotamian King List 2800 - 500 B.C. .- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC), the last of the great Assyrian kings, subdued Elam, east of Mesopotamia, and extended the empire to its greatest size.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Trends in Mesopotamian History
- Pre-Pottery Neolithic:
- Jarmo (ca. 7000 bce-? bce [lower-case bce=uncalibrated C-14 dates])
- Pottery Neolithic:
- Hassuna (ca. 6000 bce-? bce), Samarra (ca. 5700 bce-4900 bce) and Halaf (ca. 6000 bce-5300 bce) "cultures"
- Chalcolithic or Copper age:
- Early Bronze Age
- Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states (ca.^ Around 2350 BCE an important change took place: the conversion from local competing city states to the first regional state, an empire in Mesopotamia.
- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Sumerian literary tradition states that Lugalbanda in his own right was a god-king of the city of Uruk.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Lugalzaggisi had already united the city-states of Sumer by defeating each in turn and claimed to rule the lands not only of the Sumerian city-states but also those as far west as the Mediterranean.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.
- Akkadian Empire (ca.^ Around 2350 BCE an important change took place: the conversion from local competing city states to the first regional state, an empire in Mesopotamia.
- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
2350 BCE–2193 BCE).
- Third Dynasty of Ur ("Sumerian Renaissance" or "Neo-Sumerian Period") (ca. 2119 BCE–2004 BCE)
- Middle Bronze Age
- Late Bronze Age
- Iron Age
- Neo-Hittite or Syro-Hittite regional states (11th–7th c.^ Around 2350 BCE an important change took place: the conversion from local competing city states to the first regional state, an empire in Mesopotamia.
- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.
- Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th c.^ Ashur-dan II establishes the Neo-Assyrian empire.
- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ This aspect of the Neo- Assyrian empire is often overshadowed by scholars' baffling preoccupation with the Assyrian military machine and its so-called "barbaric behavior".- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The king's magnates : a study of the highest officials of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.
- Chaldea, Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th c.^ Nabonidus and Belshazzar; a study of the closing events of the Neo-Babylonian empire.
- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The Neo-Babylonian empire and Babylon in the latter prophets.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
BCE)
- Classical Antiquity
- Late Antiquity
.^ Assyrian rulers of the third and second millennia BC (to 1115 BC) / A. Kirk Grayson with the assistance of Grant Frame, Douglas Frayne ; and a contribution on Nuzi by Maynard Maidman.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Assyrian rulers of the third and second millennia BC (to 1115 BC).- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
Geography
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The garden, too, is watered, not by rainfall, but by a river which parts into different heads, as do the Tigris and Euphrates when they spread out upon the flat alluvial land below Baghdad.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Yet the best of these efforts is elaborately cumbersome compared with housing schemes on these flat lands bordering [Pg 35] the Tigris and Euphrates.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ Of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the banks of the Euphrates are the more wooded and picturesque and the Tigris is the busier.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The statement often made that Mesopotamia is a vast desert through which run two great rivers, bare but for the palm trees on their banks and flat as a pancake, is true as far as it goes.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ He showed considerable logistic ability in his seaborne attack on Elam, in which ships built in Nineveh were taken by Phoenician sailors down the Tigris, overland to a canal of the Euphrates, and thence to the Persian Gulf.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
The arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain fed agriculture, to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus
energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained.
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The garden, too, is watered, not by rainfall, but by a river which parts into different heads, as do the Tigris and Euphrates when they spread out upon the flat alluvial land below Baghdad.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ THE HOUSE OF SINBAD THE SAILOR, BASRA An old-world touch is given to the waters of Basra by the high-sterned dhows anchored in the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.
.^ The garden, too, is watered, not by rainfall, but by a river which parts into different heads, as do the Tigris and Euphrates when they spread out upon the flat alluvial land below Baghdad.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ A fringe of palms, beyond, showed where the river flowed, the river that watered the garden where the land was green and good.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ He had surveys undertaken for new sources of alabaster and building stone, and he discovered new stands of giant timber in mountain forests.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
In the marshlands to the south of the country, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since pre-historic times, and has added to the cultural mix.
Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons.
.^ The decline of Babylonian culture at the end of the Old Babylonian period continued for some time under the Kassites.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists have led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems.
.^ The first was the Empire proper: he ruled Mesopotamia outright and imposed the State's will over all the cities.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Lugalzaggisi had already united the city-states of Sumer by defeating each in turn and claimed to rule the lands not only of the Sumerian city-states but also those as far west as the Mediterranean.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The Hittites penetrated what is now central Turkey shortly after 2000 B.C. They conquered the local people and set up a number of city-states.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
[7] These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.
Language and writing
The earliest
language written in Mesopotamia was
Sumerian, an
agglutinative language isolate. Semitic dialects were also spoken in early Mesopotamia along with Sumerian.
.^ He appointed Semites to high administrative offices and posted all-Akkadian garrisons in the major cities.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Sargon, in Akkadian arru knu , the 'true/lawful king' is a Semitic king and founder of a dynasty of Akkad (Sumerian Agade).- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The languages of the older cultures, Akkadian and Sumerian, continued or were soon reestablished, however.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ The decline of Babylonian culture at the end of the Old Babylonian period continued for some time under the Kassites.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ Kerbela and Nejef are the great places of burial for the faithful, and among the common sights of the plains of Mesopotamia are endless caravans of corpses from the Persian hills or from the distant north.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The pitching inside and out is still practised in putting together some of the Euphrates boats, and the method of making a goufa, covering it on both sides with bitumen, has a strong family likeness to the method of boat-building used in those primitive times.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ Early exploration in Mesopotamia; with a list of the Assyro- Babylonian cuneiform texts published before 1851.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appear to have been developed from
pictograms.
.^ Uruk, and as such, the ritual husband of the Great Goddess Inanna, upon whose favour the citys prosperity depends.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The Sumerian King List makes Enmerkar the second king of Uruk after the Flood which would place his reign at the time when the building of Enki's temple at Eridu reached its apogee.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ In many localities an urge was felt to imitate the model of Ur; Isin probably took over unchanged the administrative system of that state.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as
scribes to be trained in its reading and writing.
.^ During Sargon's rule Akkadian became adapted to the script that previously had been used in the Sumerian language, and the new spirit of calligraphy that is visible upon the clay tablets of this dynasty is also clearly seen on contemporary cylinder seals, with their beautifully arranged and executed scenes of mythology and festive life.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ For their own royal and religious writings, they used the Hittite language recorded either in Hittite hieroglyphic writing or in cuneiform script borrowed from the Mesopotamians.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ He ruled for twenty-four years until overthrown by Sargon I. .- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.
Literature and mythology
In Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old
Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write,
[8] and for the
Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct
Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
.^ Assyrian and Babylonian literature : selected translations / with a critical introduction by Robert Francis Harper.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ He appointed his daughter to be high priestess of the god Sin in Ur, thus returning to the Sumerian-Old Babylonian religious tradition.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The decline of Babylonian culture at the end of the Old Babylonian period continued for some time under the Kassites.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.
There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us.
.^ Noah's ark and the Ziusudra epic : Sumerian origins of the flood Myth.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ One of the most attractive books which the war has yet evoked."—Connoisseur.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ This is one of the most thoroughly satisfactory artist-tourist books we have seen, and its publisher has done justice to the good material at his disposal."— Morning Post.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of
Gilgamesh.
.^ Although the oral tale of Gilgamesh could have been attributed to various rulers over millennia, the story we know is probably attached to a real king.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Philosophy
Template:Futher
.^ It is easy to forget discomfort and insects and feel a certain glamour coming back to things which, at the time, represented the commonplaces of life.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Babylonian
reasoning and
rationality developed beyond
empirical observation.
[9]
Science and technology
Astronomy
The Babylonian astronomers were very interested in studying the stars and sky, and most could already predict eclipses and solstices. People thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12 month calendar based on the cycles of the moon.
.^ Thus we can divide the empire into two sections.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
The origins of astronomy as well as
astrology date from this time.
.^ Sargon II, (721-705 BC) one of Assyria's great kings during the last century of its history.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Many scholars believe that the essential groundwork for the development of the subsequent Babylonian culture was laid during the later epoch of the Kassite era.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
They began studying
philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early
universe and began employing an internal
logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first
scientific revolution.
[12] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
In
Seleucid and
Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the
history of astronomy.
.^ The Babylonian chronicle is extant only for the years 605-594, and not much is known from other sources about the later years of this famous king.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
190 BC).
[13][14][15] Seleucus is known from the writings of
Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the
Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the
Sun. According to
Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).
Mathematics
The Mesopotamians used a
sexagesimal (base 60)
numeral system. This is the source of the current 60-minute hours and 24-hour days, as well as the 360
degree circle. The Sumerian calendar also measured weeks of seven days each. This mathematical knowledge was used in
mapmaking.
The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas.
.^ Its base measured about 300 feet on each side, and it was 300 feet in height.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ If this surmise be a correct one, then we can trace the poop tower of the Great Harry and the square windows and super-imposed galleries of the Victory's stern to this common ancestor.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ From time to time, one of these three would mount on the head or fore-part of this object, with the effect of causing it to slide and plunge forward for a few yards to stick again and again, snorting and panting and unable apparently to make any further progress.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used
pi as 3 and 1/8 (3.125 for 3.14159~).
.^ The Babylonian chronicle is extant only for the years 605-594, and not much is known from other sources about the later years of this famous king.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.
[17]Medicine
.^ Old Babylonian omen texts.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Old Babylonian period (2003-1595 BC).- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Old Babylonian extispicy : omen texts in the British Museum.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ Most of the kings seem to have only reigned for one to three years, with the longest being seven years.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Sargon II, (721-705 BC) one of Assyria's great kings during the last century of its history.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Utuhegal, king of Erech (reigned about 2120-2112 BC), won a decisive victory later celebrated in Sumerian literature.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
[19]
.^ The long arcade with brick pillars runs along the margin of the river, suggestive of some ancient Babylonian city from this distance, and is but a sorry enough place in reality.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
In addition, the
Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of
therapy and
aetiology and the use of
empiricism,
logic and
rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical
symptoms and often detailed empirical
observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a
patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.
[20]
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as
bandages,
creams and
pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on
exorcism to cleanse the patient from any
curses. Esagil-kin-apli's
Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of
axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and
inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's
disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.
[18]Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of
illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his
Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of
epilepsy and related
ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.
[21]Technology
.^ In irrigation lands like Mesopotamia it is the combination of great heat and abundant water that makes for luxuriant growth.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The flood tide had spent itself and the river seemed unusually still as twilight deepened and the many lights of the works wriggled in long reflection in the water.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Our army of occupation includes "irrigation officers," and gradually the work of watering the country is extending.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ One of them, Sargon I, would rise from humble beginnings to become the first emperor the world had seen since Nimrod.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
Early on they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and
maces.
.^ Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized Mesopotamian King List 2800 - 500 B.C. .- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ The civilizations of Babylon and Assyria owed their very life to the science of watering the land, and even in the later times of Haroun Alraschid their great systems had been well maintained.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The name was undoubtedly chosen in reminiscence of two former kings of Assyria, particularly in commemoration of Sargon of Akkad (flourished 2300 BC).- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
[23]
Religion
Mesopotamian
religion was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc
[citation needed], surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that,
heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the
universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was
polytheistic.
Although the
beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the
Pantheon, as the Greeks had
Zeus and the Romans had
Jupiter. The Sumerians also posed
philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods.
Holidays, Feasts, and Festivals
Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month is determined by six important factors:
.^ He commemorated the victory by having the Stele of the Vultures made, which is the oldest historical document ever found.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ An inscription was found during the reign of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I that stated that Manishtushu founded the famous temple of Ishtar in Nineveh.- Etana, king of Kish (flourished about 2800 BC), was described in adocument written centuries later as the"man who stabilized 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: Original source]
)
Primary gods and goddesses
- Anu was the Sumerian god of the sky. He was married to Ki, but in some other Mesopotamian religions he has a wife called Uraš. Though he was considered the most important god in the pantheon, he took a mostly passive role in epics, allowing Enlil to claim the position as most powerful god.
- Enlil was initially the most powerful god in Mesopotamian religion. His wife was Ninlil, and his children were Iškur (sometimes), Nanna - Suen, Nergal, Nisaba, Namtar, Ninurta (sometimes), Pabilsag, Nushu, Enbilulu, Uraš Zababa and Ennugi. His position at the top of the pantheon was later usurped by Marduk and then by Ashur.
- Enki (Ea) god of Eridu. .
- Marduk was the principal god of Babylon.^ The cuneiform records of Nabopolassar relate how the god Marduk commanded him 'to lay the foundation of the Tower of Babylon ...
- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.
- Ashur was god of the Assyrian empire and likewise when the Assyrians rose to power their myths raised Ashur to a position of importance.
- Gula or Utu (in Sumerian), Shamash (in Akkadian) was the sun god and god of justice.
- Ereshkigal was goddess of the Netherworld.
- Nabu was the Mesopotamian god of writing.^ Assyrian origins : discoveries at Ashur on the Tigris : antiquities in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin / edited by Prudence O. Harper...
- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Mesopotamian poetic language : Sumerian and Akkadian / M.E. Vogelzang, H.L.J. Vanstiphout, editors.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
He was very wise, and was praised for his writing ability. In some places he was believed to be in control of heaven and earth. His importance was increased considerably in the later periods.
- Ninurta was the Sumerian god of war. He was also the god of heroes.
- Iškur (or Adad) was the god of storms.
- Erra was probably the god of drought. He is often mentioned in conjunction with Adad and Nergal in laying waste to the land.
- Nergal was probably a plague god. He was also spouse of Ereshkigal.
- Pazuzu, also known as Zu, was an evil god, who stole the tablets of Enlil’s destiny, and is killed because of this. He also brought diseases which had no known cure.
Burials
Hundreds of
graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian
burial habits.
.^ A BRITISH CRUISER IN THE PERSIAN GULF Mesopotamia under the Turks was in some ways worse off than others of his badly governed possessions.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The long arcade with brick pillars runs along the margin of the river, suggestive of some ancient Babylonian city from this distance, and is but a sorry enough place in reality.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
A few have been found wrapped in mats and
carpets. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family
chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city
graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them ; it is assumed that these were royal graves.
Culture
Music, songs and instruments
Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events.
.^ They themselves expected to be kings of the East although coming from the West, and some, it is interesting to note, explain the Prussians as of Oriental origin.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many
generations until someone wrote them down.
.^ Here again we were held up while countless mahailas passed through, but we succeeded in getting over at last and eventually found the house of the Wise Men, the headquarters of the irrigation officers.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The
Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the
Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a
cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The
image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a
boat, playing
right-handed.
.^ Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc To Find Location of a Book, Please Check the Catalog .- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
The oud is regarded as a
precursor to the
European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.)
Games
Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings.
.^ A BRITISH CRUISER IN THE PERSIAN GULF Mesopotamia under the Turks was in some ways worse off than others of his badly governed possessions.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
[24] They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to
senet and
backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ma-asesblu."
Family life
The Babylonian marriage market, in the Royal Holloway College.
.^ Before the war, when Mesopotamia was a more distant land than it is to-day, Basra was often referred to as the Venice of the East.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Thorkild Jacobsen, and others have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, and so on, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.
[25] Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn
housekeeping and
cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain, or cleaning birds. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had
rights. They could own
property and, if they had good reason, get a
divorce.
Economy
Mining areas of the ancient
Middle East. Boxes colors:
arsenic is in brown,
copper in red,
tin in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and
lead in black. Yellow area stands for
arsenic bronze, while grey area stands for tin
bronze.
Agriculture
The geography of Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of Mesopotamian civilization.
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Yet the best of these efforts is elaborately cumbersome compared with housing schemes on these flat lands bordering [Pg 35] the Tigris and Euphrates.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Some major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds and clay (for building materials).
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the banks of the Euphrates are the more wooded and picturesque and the Tigris is the busier.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ Maxwell's sketches are extremely good and vivid, and the text is lively and readable."— Land and Water.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ These two systems, as can be easily imagined, are good only for the land in the immediate vicinity of the river bank, as the supply of water is necessarily not large.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Large reservoirs and lakes for storing surplus water were made, and thus the uneven delivery of water by the rivers was checked and a more regular and manageable supply maintained.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
This is why the development of
irrigation was very important for
settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian
innovations include the control of water by
dams and the use of
aqueducts.
.^ Before the war, when Mesopotamia was a more distant land than it is to-day, Basra was often referred to as the Venice of the East.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make
beer and
wine.
Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on
slaves to complete farm work for them, with some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/
mutiny of the
slave).
Government
The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region.
.^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ At first our road ran along the quays by the river side.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The long arcade with brick pillars runs along the margin of the river, suggestive of some ancient Babylonian city from this distance, and is but a sorry enough place in reality.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and at times dangerous. Thus each Sumerian city became a
city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by
Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331B.C. only a generation later.
The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.
Kings
.^ The long arcade with brick pillars runs along the margin of the river, suggestive of some ancient Babylonian city from this distance, and is but a sorry enough place in reality.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ An old house in Mesopotamia in which Sinbad the Sailor had not lived would be equivalent to one of England's ancient country mansions in which Queen Elizabeth had never slept.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
[26] Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “
shepherd”, as kings had to look after their people.
Notable Mesopotamian kings include:
.^ He is a rash man who would prophesy concerning the future of Mesopotamia as far as our empire is concerned.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The future of Mesopotamia with its enormous productive potentialities is a subject fraught with great interest to all those who have studied her past.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The construction of the Assyrian empire : a historical study of the inscriptions of Shalmanesar III relating to his campaigns in the West.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The king's magnates : a study of the highest officials of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ Nabonidus and Belshazzar; a study of the closing events of the Neo-Babylonian empire.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The Neo-Babylonian empire and Babylon in the latter prophets.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The king's magnates : a study of the highest officials of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
He was thought to be the son of the god Nabu. He married the daughter of Cyaxeres, so the Median and the
Babylonian dynasties had a familial connection. Nebuchadnezzar’s name means: Nabo, protect the crown!
Belshedezzar was the last king of Babylonia. He was the son of Nabonidus whose wife was Nictoris, the daughter of
Nebuchadnezzar.
Power
When
Assyria grew into an
empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called
provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh,
Samaria,
Damascus and
Arpad. They all had their own
governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes; he had to call up
soldiers to
war, and supply
workers when a
temple was built. He was also responsible for the laws being enforced. In this way it was easier to keep control of an empire like Assyria. Although Babylon was quite a small
state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of
Hammurabi's rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon
Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.
Warfare
Assyrian soldiers, from a plate in
THE HISTORY OF COSTUME by Braun & Schneider (ca. 1860).
As
city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals.
.^ Perhaps the scarcity of paint during years of war may have had something to do with this noticeable absence of colouring in regard to both houses and boats.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ From a painter's point of view, the scene of this great city, about which he has pictured so much, is somewhat disappointing.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Although it was for the Imperial War Museum that I went to Mesopotamia, these notes are not about the War, but they are a series of impressions of Mesopotamia in general.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.
[27] .^ Although it was for the Imperial War Museum that I went to Mesopotamia, these notes are not about the War, but they are a series of impressions of Mesopotamia in general.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
King Sargon, for example conquered all the cities of
Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern
Syria. Many Babylonian
palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy, whether desperately escaping, or hiding amongst reeds. A king in Sumer, Gilgamesh, was thought two-thirds god and only one third human. There were legendary stories and poems about him, which were passed on for many generations, because he had many adventures that were believed very important, and won many wars and battles.
Laws
King Hammurabi, as mentioned above, was famous for his set of laws,
The Code of Hammurabi (created ca.
.^ An old house in Mesopotamia in which Sinbad the Sailor had not lived would be equivalent to one of England's ancient country mansions in which Queen Elizabeth had never slept.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
He made over 200 laws for Mesopotamia
For more information, see Hammurabi and Code of Hammurabi. See also: Laws of Eshnunna, Code of Ur-Nammu.
Architecture
.^ Ancient mesopotamian materials and industries : the archaeological evidence.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ The writing on the wall : studies in the architectural context of late Assyrian palace inscriptions.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The mound Babil is thought to be the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II. An inscription reads: "On the brick wall towards the north my heart inspired me to build a palace for the protecting of Babylon.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
[28] Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
.^ The writing on the wall : studies in the architectural context of late Assyrian palace inscriptions.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The Neo-Babylonian empire and Babylon in the latter prophets.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ Royal gifts in the late Bronze Age, fourteenth to thirteenth centuries B.C.E. : selected texts recording gifts to royal personages / transcriptions and translations.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur.
.^ Assyrian royal inscriptions.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ A translation of the inscription proved beyond doubt that the Shushan was used by Nebuchadnezzar [Pg 44] as a royal yacht, and is the last surviving link with the Babylonian navy.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The construction of the Assyrian empire : a historical study of the inscriptions of Shalmanesar III relating to his campaigns in the West.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
Houses
.^ The fact that all the stock-in-trade of a township amounts to a few pots and pans and house material of cane matting and mud makes it impossible to impress them by destroying their houses.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The pitching inside and out is still practised in putting together some of the Euphrates boats, and the method of making a goufa, covering it on both sides with bitumen, has a strong family likeness to the method of boat-building used in those primitive times.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ In the bright sunlight of the Mesopotamian plains, and probably also on account of their prominence at a distance over the flat land, some of these mud buildings look quite imposing.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves
[4].
.^ The fact that all the stock-in-trade of a township amounts to a few pots and pans and house material of cane matting and mud makes it impossible to impress them by destroying their houses.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ There was very little to do at Basra except watch steamers load up with the more fortunate candidates for demobilization and give them a send-off.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Our baggage we left there and set out on foot to try and reach Navy House, which was the other side of the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
[30]
The Palace
The
palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest examples are known from the
Diyala River valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as a large scale socio-economic institutions, therefore, along with residential and private function, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "giparu" (or Gig-Par-Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god
Nanna's priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, a ceremonial banquet hall, etc.
.^ Old Babylonian period (2003-1595 BC).- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
.^ The writing on the wall : studies in the architectural context of late Assyrian palace inscriptions.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
^ The palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis restored; an essay on ancient Assyrian and Persian architecture.- Ancient Mesopotamian History, Culture, Literature, etc 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.lib.washington.edu [Source type: Academic]
These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculpture of apotropaic mythological figures. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throneroom opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met, state ceremonies performed.
.^ How many times has a sketch done in a failing light looked strong in tone, only to go to pieces when seen under normal conditions?- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
There is also good evidence that bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates.
Ziggurats
Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers built in the ancient
Mesopotamian valley and western
Iranian plateau, having the form of a terraced
step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels. There are 32 ziggurats known at, and near, Mesopotamia. Twenty-eight of them are in
Iraq, and four of them are in
Iran. Notable Ziggurats include the
Great Ziggurat of Ur near
Nasiriyah, Iraq, the
Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near
Baghdad, Iraq,
Chogha Zanbil in
Khūzestān, Iran, the most recent to be discovered -
Sialk near
Kashan, Iran and others. Ziggurats were built by the
Sumerians,
Babylonians,
Elamites and
Assyrians as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the
Ubaid period[31] during the fourth
millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.
[32] Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a
pyramidal structure. Sun-baked
bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had
astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.
Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in
bitumen, circa 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (
Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. At the Tschoga Zanbil ziggurat archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass. The Ancient Mesopotamians were located at the center of the near east. It was in present day Iraq as well as some parts of Syria and Turkey.
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ An ancient prophecy foretells that the great river Euphrates shall be dried up that the way of the kings of the East shall be prepared.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ MUD HOUSES ON THE TIGRIS The object of the ancient irrigationists was to tap the rivers at the higher part of this plain, and then, by means of great canals, lead the water where they wanted it.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ These two systems, as can be easily imagined, are good only for the land in the immediate vicinity of the river bank, as the supply of water is necessarily not large.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The river was high and the land in between the great bends was a maze of rushes and lagoons.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The southern part of Mesopotamia made up part of the Fertile Crescent. Because of where it is, Mesopotamia has hot summers and cold winters. The first city in Mesopotamia was Eridu. The rivers of Mesopotamia helped sustain life and provide food. The rivers helped the Mesopotamians by wetting and irrigating the soil and land. The rivers could also be dangerous, and cause floods and wash away crops and newly planted seeds.
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the banks of the Euphrates are the more wooded and picturesque and the Tigris is the busier.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ The tide is felt in all these waters, and sometimes, during a spring tide, the effect of some of these date palm plantations, with the ground just covered, is strange.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Owing to the river being in flood, it was open, that is, the middle section had been floated out, for fear that the hawsers would not stand the strain and the only road across was the Maude Bridge lower down.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The flood tide had spent itself and the river seemed unusually still as twilight deepened and the many lights of the works wriggled in long reflection in the water.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
If this happened then the Mesopotamians would have to use boats to go to other people’s houses or to outside of the flooding areas. The river affected Mesopotamian life in many different ways. The Mesopotamians had complex and intricate ways of farming.
.^ On the Euphrates there are two methods used for local irrigation apart from the system of canals flowing from the river.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
The Mesopotamians had bucket lifting devices to move water between different levels in the canals and to bring water to the crops.
.^ Here again we were held up while countless mahailas passed through, but we succeeded in getting over at last and eventually found the house of the Wise Men, the headquarters of the irrigation officers.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Irrigation in Mesopotamia played an important role. The Mesopotamians were the first people to invent writing, or an alphabet! At the beginning, writing was simple, a picture to show what you wanted to show. Eventually writing evolved to complex cuneiform. There were hundreds of letters in the cuneiform alphabet. The language Mesopotamians spoken was not called Mesopotamian, but Sumerian. Cuneiform has been adapted for use with Akkadian, Babylonian, Persian, and many other languages.
Farmers grew food to feed the people of Mesopotamia, but the wealth of the cities of Mesopotamia came from merchants and craftspeople. The Mesopotamians placed great value on commerce. Mesopotamia didn’t have many natural resources, so they traded mostly grain and textiles.
.^ The Tigris and Euphrates are rivers fed by the melting snow in the mountains of Armenia.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the banks of the Euphrates are the more wooded and picturesque and the Tigris is the busier.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ She would be approaching the coast at the mouth of the river Euphrates, the Tigris flowing-out some fifty miles further east.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
They traded goods as far as Africa, Asia, and Europe. Mesopotamia didn’t use coins, but standards based on the weight of silver and grains were established.
.^ Of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the banks of the Euphrates are the more wooded and picturesque and the Tigris is the busier.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The idea of getting across the river in a goufa flashed across his mind, but a glance at the foaming, tearing water was sufficient deterrent even to an optimist like Brown.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Without trade Mesopotamia would have easily failed.
.^ They are all women who do the selling—weird figures in black carrying baskets of eggs and occasionally chicken.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ Up till now, upon a map of the world in Abraham's time, the good little Shushan would still be at sea.- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
References
Notes
- ^ "Mesopotamia - The British Museum". http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/geography/home_set.html.
- ^ a b c "Geography of Mesopotamia - Thematic Essay - Timeline of Art History - The Metropolitan Museum of Art". http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/m_wam/hd_m_wam.htm.
- ^ [1]
- ^ "Khuzestan". Khuzestan. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045360/Khuzestan. Retrieved 2008-12-27.
- ^ Finkelstein, J. J.; 1962. “Mesopotamia”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21: 73-92
- ^ Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” European Review of History 10/2: 253–272. Also: Bahrani, Zainab; 1998. “Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. L. Meskell (ed.), Routledge: London and New York, 159–174.
- ^ Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World Systems Research)
- ^ Tatlow, Elisabeth Meier Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The ancient Near East Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. (31 Mar 2005) ISBN 978-0826416285 p.75 [2]
- ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47.
- ^ a b Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (3), p. 385-391.
- ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47 43.
- ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology , Styx Publications, ISBN 9056930362.
- ^ Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), p. 1-38.
- ^ George Sarton (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C.", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), p. 166-173 [169].
- ^ William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p.38.
- ^ Pingree (1998)
- ^ Eves, Howard An Introduction to the History of Mathematics Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969 p.31 [3]
- ^ a b H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665.
- ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631.
- ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97-98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665.
- ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631.
- ^ Stephanie Dalley and John Peter Oleson (January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World", Technology and Culture 44 (1).
- ^ Twist, Jo (20 November 2005). "Open media to connect communities". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4450052.stm. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.
- ^ Rivkah Harris (2000). Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia.
- ^ Robert Dalling (2004). The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization.
- ^ >Robert Dalling (2004). The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization.
- ^ Dunham, Sally (2005). "Ancient Near Eastern architecture". in Daniel Snell. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 266–280. ISBN 0-631-23293-1.
- ^ Nicholas Postgate, J N Postgate (1994). Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History.
- ^ Susan Pollock (1999). Ancient Mesopotamia.
- ^ Crawford, page 73
- ^ Crawford, page 73-74
Bibliography
- Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien, Brepols, 1996 ISBN|2503500463.
- Benoit, Agnès; 2003. Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien, Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre.
- Jean Bottéro; 1987.Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », ISBN|2070403084.
- Jean Bottéro; 1992. Mesopotamia: writing, reasoning and the gods. Trans. by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop, University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
- Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, München, ISBN 3-406-51664-5
- Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris. München 2005 (4. Aufl.), ISBN 3-406-46530-7
- Joannès, Francis; 2001. Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne, Robert Laffont.
- Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. Mesopotamien - Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-8062-1851-X
- Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. The Ancient Near East: c. 3000-330 B.C. 2 Vols. .
- Liverani, Mario; 1991. Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia.^ LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD, VIGO STREET NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY MCMXXI .
- The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Dweller in Mesopotamia, by Donald Maxwell 14 January 2010 2:32 UTC www.gutenberg.org [Source type: Original source]
Editori Laterza: Roma.
- Matthews, Roger: 2003. The archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and approaches, London 2003, ISBN 0-415-25317-9
- Matthews, Roger; 2005. The early prehistory of Mesopotamia - 500,000 to 4,500 BC, Turnhout 2005, ISBN 2-503-50729-8
- Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.
- Pollock, Susan; 1999. Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
- Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history. Routledge: London and New York.
- Roux, Georges; 1964. Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books.
- Silver, Morris; 2007. "Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi", Antiguo Oriente 5: 89-112.
- Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005.
- Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000-323 BC. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
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