From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mishpatim (משפטים — Hebrew for “laws”) is the eighteenth weekly
Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and
the sixth in the book of Exodus. It constitutes Exodus 21:1–24:18. Jews in the Diaspora read it the eighteenth Sabbath after Simchat Torah,
generally in February.
Jews also read the first part of parshah Ki Tisa, Exodus 30:11–16,
regarding the half-shekel head
tax, as the maftir Torah
reading on the special Sabbath Shabbat Shekalim, which
often falls on the same Sabbath as parshah Mishpatim (as it does in
2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017).
Moses with the Tablets of the Law (painting by
Rembrandt)
Summary
Moses Receives the Tablets of the Law (painting by João Zeferino da
Costa)
God told Moses to give the people a series of laws (see
"Commandments" below), which some scholars call the Covenant Code. (Ex. 21–23.)
God invited Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and 70 elders to bow
to God from afar. (Ex. 24:1.) Moses repeated
the commandments to the people, who answered: “All the things that
the Lord has commanded we will do!” (Ex. 24:3.) Moses then
wrote the commandments down. (Ex. 24:4.) He set up an
altar and some young Israelite men offered sacrifices. (Ex. 24:4-5.) Moses read
the covenant aloud to the people, who once again affirmed that they
would follow it. (Ex. 24:7.) Moses took blood from the sacrifices and
dashed it on the people. (Ex. 24:8.)
Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and the 70 elders of Israel then
ascended, saw God, ate, and drank. (Ex. 24:9-11.)
Moses and Joshua arose, and
Moses ascended Mount
Sinai, leaving Aaron and Hur in
charge of legal matters. (Ex. 24:13-14.) A cloud
covered the mountain, hiding the Presence of the Lord for six days,
appearing to the Israelites as a fire on the top of the mountain. (Ex. 24:15-17.) Moses went
inside the cloud and remained on the mountain 40 days and nights.
(Ex. 24:18.)
In classical rabbinic
interpretation
Exodus chapter
21
Rabbi Akiba (illustration from the 1568
Mantua Haggadah)
Rabbi Akiba deduced from the words “now
these are the ordinances that you shall put before them” in Exodus 21:1 that the
teacher must wherever possible explain to the student the reasons
behind the commandments. (Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 54b.)
The Mishnah interpreted
the language of Exodus 21:6 to teach that
a man could sell his daughter, but a woman could not sell her
daughter. (Mishnah Sotah 3:8;
Babylonian Talmud Sotah 23a.)
Rabbi
Eliezer interpreted the conjugal duty of Exodus 21:10 to require
relations: for men of independence, every day; for laborers, twice
a week; for donkey-drivers, once a week; for camel-drivers, once in
30 days; for sailors, once in six months. (Mishnah Ketubot 5:6;
Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 61b.)
Chapter 2 of tractate Makkot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian
Talmud interpreted the laws of the cities of refuge in Exodus 21:12–14, Numbers 35:1–34, Deuteronomy 4:41–43, and
19:1–13. (Mishnah Makkot 2:1–8; Tosefta Makkot
2:1–3:10; Jerusalem Talmud Makkot; Babylonian Talmud Makkot
7a–13a.)
The Gemara taught that the
words “eye for eye” in Exodus 21:24 meant
pecuniary compensation. Rabbi Simon ben Yohai asked those who would
take the words literally how they would enforce equal justice where
a blind man put out the eye of another man, or an amputee cut off
the hand of another, or where a lame person broke the leg of
another. The school of Rabbi Ishmael cited the words “so shall it
be given to him” in Leviticus 24:20, and deduced that
the word “give” could apply only to pecuniary compensation. The
school of Rabbi Hiyya cited the words “hand for hand” in the
parallel discussion in Deuteronomy 19:21 to mean
that an article was given from hand to hand, namely money. Abaye reported that a sage of the
school of Hezekiah taught that Exodus 21:23–24 said “eye
for eye” and “life for life,” but not “life and eye for eye,” and
it could sometimes happen that eye and life would be taken for an
eye, as when the offender died while being blinded. Rav Papa said in the name of
Raba that Exodus 21:19 referred
explicitly to healing, and the verse would not make sense if one
assumed that retaliation was meant. And Rav Ashi taught that the principle of
pecuniary compensation could be derived from the analogous use of
the term “for” in Exodus 21:24 in the
expression “eye for eye” and in Exodus 21:36 in the
expression “he shall surely pay ox for ox.” As the latter case
plainly indicated pecuniary compensation, so must the former.
(Babylonian Talmud Bava Kamma 84a.)
Tractate Bava Kamma
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud interpreted the laws of damages
related to oxen in Exodus 21:28–32, 35–36, pits in Exodus 21:33–34, men who
steal livestock in Exodus 21:37,
crop-destroying beasts in Exodus 22:4, fires in Exodus 22:5, and related
torts. (Mishnah Bava Kamma
1:1–10:10; Tosefta Bava Kamma 1:1–11:18; Babylonian Talmud Bava
Kamma 2a–119b.)
Exodus chapter
22
The Mishnah interpreted
the language of Exodus 22:2 to teach that
a man was sold to make restitution for his theft, but a woman was
not sold for her theft. (Mishnah Sotah 3:8;
Babylonian Talmud Sotah 23a.)
Rabbi Ishmael and Rabbi Akiba differed over
the meaning of the word “his” in the clause “of the best of
his own field, and of the best of his own
vineyard, shall he make restitution” in Exodus 22:4. Rabbi
Ishmael read Exodus 22:4 to require
the damager to compensate the injured party out of property
equivalent to the injured party’s best property, whereas
Rabbi Akiba read Exodus 22:4 to require
the damager to compensate the injured party out of the
damager’s best property. The Mishnah required that a
damager compensates for damage done out of the damager’s best
quality property. (Mishnah Gittin 5:1;
Babylonian Talmud Gittin 48b.) The Gemara explained that the
Mishnah imposed this high penalty because Exodus 22:4 requires it,
and Exodus 22:4 imposes this
penalty to discourage the doing of damage. (Babylonian Talmud
Gittin 48b–49b.)
Rabbi
Samuel bar Nahmani in the name of Rabbi
Johanan interpreted the account of spreading fire in Exodus 22:5 as an
application of the general principle that calamity comes upon the
world only when there are wicked persons (represented by the
thorns) in the world, and its effects always manifest themselves
first upon the righteous (represented by the grain). (Babylonian
Talmud Bava Kamma 60a.)
Rabbi Isaac the smith interpreted Exodus 22:5 homiletically
to teach that God has taken responsibility to rebuild the Temple,
as God allowed the fire of man’s sin to go out of Zion to destroy
it, as Lamentations 4:11
reports, “He has kindled a fire in Zion, which has devoured the
foundations thereof,” and God will nonetheless rebuild them, as Zechariah 2:9 reports,
“For I, says the Lord, will be to her a wall of fire round about,
and I will be the glory in the midst of her.” (Babylonian Talmud
Bava Kamma 60b.)
Portions of the latter chapters of Tractate Bava Metzia in the
Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud
interpreted the laws of bailment in Exodus 22:6–14. (Mishnah Bava Metzia
7:8–8:3; Tosefta Bava Metzia 7:9–8:1; Jerusalem Talmud Bava
Metzia; Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 93a–99b.) The Mishnah
identified four categories of guardians (shomrim): (1) an
unpaid custodian (Exodus 22:6–8), (2) a
borrower (Exodus 22:13–14a), (3) a
paid custodian (Exodus 22:11), and (4) a
renter (Exodus 22:14b). The
Mishnah summarized the law when damage befell the property in
question: An unpaid custodian must swear for everything and bears
no liability, a borrower must pay in all cases, a paid custodian or
a renter must swear concerning an animal that was injured,
captured, or died, but must pay for loss or theft. (Mishnah Bava Metzia 7:8;
Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 93a.)
Rabbah explained that the Torah in
Exodus 22:8–10 requires
those who admit to a part of a claim against them to take an oath,
because the law presumes that no debtor is so brazen in the face of
a creditor as to deny the debt entirely. (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot
18a.)
Rabbi Eliezer the Great noted that
the Torah warns about kindness to the stranger (ger) no
less than 36 times, and some say 46 times (including twice in
Parshah Mishpatim, in Exodus 22:20 and 23:9). (Babylonian Talmud
Bava Metzia 59b.)
Citing Exodus 22:20 to apply to
verbal wrongs, the Mishnah taught that one must not say to a
repentant sinner, “remember your former deeds,” and one must not
taunt a child of converts saying, “remember the deeds of your
ancestors.” (Mishnah Bava Metzia 4:10;
Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 58b.) Similarly, a Baraita taught that one must not say to a
convert who comes to study the Torah, “Shall the mouth that ate
unclean and forbidden food, abominable and creeping things, come to
study the Torah that was uttered by the mouth of Omnipotence!”
(Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 58b.)
The Gemara taught that the Torah provided similar injunctions in
Exodus 22:25 and Deuteronomy 24:12–13 to
teach that a lender had to return a garment worn during the day
before sunrise, and return a garment worn during the night before
sunset. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 31b.)
Exodus chapter
23
A Baraita taught that one
day, Rabbi Eliezer employed every imaginable argument for the
proposition that a particular type of oven was not susceptible to
ritual impurity, but the Sages did not accept his arguments. Then
Rabbi Eliezer told the Sages, “If the halachah agrees with me, then let this carob tree prove it,” and
the carob tree moved 100 cubits
(and others say 400 cubits) out of its place. But the Sages said
that no proof can be brought from a carob tree. Then Rabbi Eliezer
told the Sages, “If the halachah agrees with me, let this stream of
water prove it,” and the stream of water flowed backwards. But the
Sages said that no proof can be brought from a stream of water.
Then Rabbi Eliezer told the Sages, “If the halachah agrees with me,
let the walls of this house of study prove it,” and the walls
leaned over as if to fall. But Rabbi Joshua rebuked the walls,
telling them not to interfere with scholars engaged in a halachic
dispute. In honor of Rabbi Joshua, the walls did not fall, but in
honor of Rabbi Eliezer, the walls did not stand upright, either.
Then Rabbi Eliezer told the Sages, “If the halachah agrees with me,
let Heaven prove it,” and a Heavenly Voice cried out: “Why do you
dispute with Rabbi Eliezer, for in all matters the halachah agrees
with him!” But Rabbi Joshua rose and exclaimed in the words of Deuteronomy 30:12: “It is
not in heaven.” Rabbi Jeremiah explained that God had given the
Torah at Mount Sinai; Jews pay no attention to Heavenly Voices, for
God wrote in Exodus 23:2: “After the
majority must one incline.” Later, Rabbi Nathan met Elijah and asked him what God did when Rabbi
Joshua rose in opposition to the Heavenly Voice. Elijah replied
that God laughed with joy, saying, “My children have defeated Me,
My children have defeated Me!” (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia
59b.)
The Mishnah interpreted Exodus 23:8 to teach that
judges who accept a bribe and change their judgments on account of
the bribe will not die of old age before their eyes grow weak.
(Mishnah Peah 8:9.)
Tractate Sheviit in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and
Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in Exodus 23:10–11, Leviticus 25:1–34, and Deuteronomy 15:1–18, and
31:10–13. (Mishnah Sheviit
1:1–10:9; Tosefta Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Jerusalem Talmud Sheviit
1a–87b.) The Mishnah taught that exile resulted from (among other
things) transgressing the commandment (in Exodus 23:10–11 and Leviticus 25:3–5) to
observe a Sabbatical year for the land. (Mishnah Avot 5:9.) Rabbi
Isaac taught that the words of Psalm 103:20, “mighty in
strength that fulfill His word,” speak of those who observe the
Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person
fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is
remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac
asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees
his field untilled, see his vineyard untilled, and yet pays his
taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that Psalm 103:20 uses the
words “that fulfill His word (dabar),” and Deuteronomy 15:2 says
regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, “And this is the
manner (dabar) of the release,” and argued that
“dabar” means the observance of the Sabbatical year in
both places. (Leviticus Rabbah 1:1.)
The Gemara deduced from the parallel use of the word “appear” in
Exodus 23:14 and Deuteronomy 16:15
(regarding appearance offerings) on the one hand, and in Deuteronomy 31:10–12
(regarding the great assembly) on the other hand, that the criteria
for who participated in the great assembly also applied to limit
who needed to bring appearance offerings. A Baraita deduced from
the words “that they may hear” in Deuteronomy 31:12 that a
deaf
person was not required to appear at the assembly. And the Baraita
deduced from the words “that they may learn” in Deuteronomy 31:12 that a
mute person was not required
to appear at the assembly. But the Gemara questioned the conclusion
that one who cannot talk cannot learn, recounting the story of two
mute grandsons (or others say nephews) of Rabbi Johanan ben Gudgada
who lived in Rabbi’s neighborhood. Rabbi prayed for
them, and they were healed. And it turned out that notwithstanding
their speech impediment, they had learned halachah, Sifra, Sifre,
and the whole Talmud. Mar Zutra and Rav Ashi read the words “that they may learn”
in Deuteronomy 31:12 to mean
“that they may teach,” and thus to exclude people who could not
speak from the obligation to appear at the assembly. Rabbi Tanhum
deduced from the words “in their ears” (using the plural for
“ears”) at the end of Deuteronomy 31:11 that
one who was deaf in one ear was exempt from appearing at the
assembly. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 3a.)
Moses Receives the Law (illustration by
Carolingian book painter circa
840)
Tractate Pesachim in the
Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud
interpreted the laws of the Passover in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:15; 34:25; Leviticus 23:4–8; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16-25; and Deuteronomy 16:1–8. (Mishnah Pesachim 1:1–10:9;
Tosefta Pisha 1:1–10:13; Jerusalem Talmud Pesachim 1a–; Babylonian
Talmud Pesachim 2a–121b.)
Tractate Sukkah in the Mishnah, Tosefta,
Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of
Sukkot in Exodus 23:16; 34:22; Leviticus 23:33–43; Numbers 29:12–34; and Deuteronomy 16:13–17; 31:10–13. (Mishnah Sukkah 1:1–5:8;
Tosefta Sukkah 1:1–4:28; Jerusalem Talmud Sukkah 1a–33b; Babylonian
Talmud Sukkah 2a–56b.)
The Mishnah deduced from the words “the feast of harvest, the
first-fruits of your labors, which you sow in the field” in Exodus 23:16 that first
fruits were not to be brought before Shavuot. The Mishnah reported that the men of
Mount Zeboim brought their first fruits
before Shavuot, but the priests did not accept them, because of
what is written in Exodus 23:16. (Mishnah
Bikkurim 1:3.)
Tractate Bikkurim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and
Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the first fruits in Exodus 23:19, Numbers 18:13, and Deuteronomy 12:17–18 and
26:1–11. (Mishnah Bikkurim
1:1–3:12; Tosefta Bikkurim 1:1–2:16; Jerusalem Talmud Bikkurim
1a–26b.) The Mishnah interpreted the words “the first-fruits of
your land” in Exodus 23:19 to mean that
a person could not bring first fruits unless all the produce came
from that person’s land. The Mishnah thus taught that people who
planted trees but bent their branches into or over another’s
property could not bring first fruits from those trees. And for the
same reason, the Mishnah taught that tenants, lessees, occupiers of
confiscated property, or robbers could not bring first fruits.
(Mishnah Bikkurim 1:1–2.)
The Gemara interpreted the words of Moses, “I am a hundred and
twenty years old this day,” in Deuteronomy 31:2 to
signify that Moses spoke on his birthday, and that he thus died on
his birthday. Citing the words “the number of your days I will
fulfill” in Exodus 23:26, the Gemara
concluded that God completes the years of the righteous to the day,
concluding their lives on their birthdays. (Babylonian Talmud Rosh
Hashanah 11a.)
Exodus chapter
24
Reading Exodus 24:3, Rabbi Simlai taught that when the
Israelites gave precedence to “we will do” over “we will hearken,”
600,000 ministering angels came and set two crowns on each
Israelite man, one as a reward for “we will do” and the other as a
reward for “we will hearken.” But as soon as the Israelites
committed the sin of the golden calf, 1.2 million destroying angels
descended and removed the crowns, as it is said in Exodus 33:6, “And the
children of Israel stripped themselves of their ornaments from
mount Horeb.” (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 88a.)
Commandments
According to the Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 23
positive and 30 negative commandments in the parshah:
- To purchase a Hebrew slave in accordance with the prescribed laws
(Ex. 21:2.)
- To betroth the Jewish maidservant (Ex. 21:8.)
- To redeem Jewish maidservants (Ex. 21:8.)
- The master must not sell his Jewish maidservant. (Ex. 21:8.)
- Not to withhold food, clothing, or sexual relations from one's
wife (Ex. 21:10.)
- The courts must execute by
strangulation those who deserve it. (Ex. 21:12.)
- Not to strike one's father or mother (Ex. 21:15.)
- The court must implement laws against the one who assaults
another or damages another's property. (Ex. 21:18-19.)
- The court must carry out the death penalty of the sword. (Ex. 21:20.)
- The court must judge the damages incurred by a goring ox. (Ex. 21:28.)
- Not to benefit from an ox condemned to be stoned (Ex. 21:28.)
- The court must judge the damages incurred by a pit. (Ex. 21:33.)
- The court must implement punitive measures against the thief. (Ex. 21:37.)
- The court must judge the damages incurred by an animal eating.
(Ex. 22:4.)
- The court must judge the damages incurred by fire. (Ex. 22:5.)
- The courts must carry out the laws of an unpaid guard. (Ex. 22:6.)
- The courts must carry out the laws of the plaintiff, admitter,
or denier. (Ex. 22:8.)
- The courts must carry out the laws of a hired worker and hired
guard. (Ex. 22:9.)
- The courts must carry out the laws of a borrower. (Ex. 22:13.)
- The court must fine one who seduces a maiden. (Ex. 22:15-16.)
- The court must not let the sorcerer live. (Ex. 22:17.)
- Not to insult or harm a sincere convert with words (Ex. 22:20.)
- Not to cheat a sincere convert monetarily (Ex. 22:20.)
- Not to afflict any orphan or widow (Ex. 22:21.)
- To lend to the poor and destitute (Ex. 22:24.)
- Not to press them for payment if you know they don't have it
(Ex. 22:24.)
- Not to intermediate in an interest loan, guarantee, witness, or
write the promissory note (Ex. 22:24.)
- Not to curse judges (Ex. 22:27.)
- Not to blaspheme (Ex. 22:27.)
- Not to curse the head of state or leader of the Sanhedrin (Ex. 22:27.)
- Not to preface one tithe to
the next, but separate them in their proper order (Ex. 22:28.)
- Not to eat meat of an animal that was mortally wounded (Ex. 22:30.)
- Judges must not accept testimony unless both parties are
present. (Ex. 23:1.)
- Transgressors must not testify. (Ex. 23:1.)
- The court must not execute through a majority of one; at least
a majority of two is required. (Ex. 23:2.)
- A judge who presented an acquittal plea must not present an
argument for conviction in capital cases. (Ex. 23:2.)
- To decide by majority in case of disagreement (Ex. 23:2.)
- Not to pity a poor man in judgment (Ex. 23:3.)
- To help another remove the load from a beast which can no
longer carry it (Ex. 23:5.)
- A judge must not decide unjustly the case of the habitual
transgressor. (Ex. 23:6.)
- The court must not kill anybody on circumstantial evidence. (Ex. 23:7.)
- Judges must not accept bribes. (Ex. 23:8.)
- To leave free all produce that grew in the Sabbatical year (Ex. 23:11.)
- To rest on the seventh
day (Ex. 23:12.)
- Not to swear in the name of an idol (Ex. 23:13.)
- Not to turn Israelites to idolatry (Ex. 23:13.)
- To celebrate on the three Festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot (Ex. 23:14.)
- Not to slaughter the Passover lamb while in possession of
leaven (Ex. 23:18.)
- Not to leave the fat overnight (Ex. 23:18.)
- To set aside the first fruits and bring them to the Temple
(Ex. 23:19.)
- Not to eat meat and milk cooked together (Ex. 23:19.)
- Not to make any treaty with the seven nations to be extirpated,
or with any idol worshiper (Ex. 23:32.)
- Not to let them dwell in our land (Ex. 23:33.)
(Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education.
Translated by Charles Wengrov, vol. 1, 197–355. Jerusalem: Feldheim
Pub., 1991. ISBN 0-87306-179-9.)
Haftarah
Generally
The haftarah for the
parshah is Jeremiah 34:8–22 & 33:25–26. Both the parshah
and the haftarah address the law requiring the release of Hebrew
slaves. Both the parshah and the haftarah use the words “Hebrew”
(ivri) (Ex. 21:2; Jer. 34:9,14), “slave” or
“servant” (eved) (Ex. 21:2,5,7; Jer. 34:9–11), “free”
(chofshi) (Ex. 21:2,5; Jer. 34:9–11,14), and
“covenant” (brit) (Ex. 24:7; Jer. 34:13.) The haftarah
literally quotes the parshah. (Jeremiah 34:14; Ex. 21:2.) And the
haftarah recites the setting of the parshah (described in the
previous parshah), the time at which God brought the Israelites
“out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.” (Jer. 34:13; Ex. 20:2.)
On Shabbat
Shekalim
When the parshah coincides with the special Sabbath Shabbat
Shekalim (as it does in 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017),
the haftarah is 2
Kings 12:1–17.
In the
liturgy
Many Jews recite Exodus 23:20 three times
as part of the Tefilat HaDerech (Wayfarer’s
Prayer), said on setting out on a journey. (Menachem Davis. The
Schottenstein Edition Siddur for Weekdays with an Interlinear
Translation, 311–13. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2002.
ISBN 1-57819-686-8.)
The Weekly
Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardic Jews each week base the songs
of the services on the content of that week's parshah. For Parshah
Mishpatim, Sephardic Jews apply Maqam Saba, the maqam that
symbolizes the covenant between man and God. By performing mitzvot
and following commandments, one obeys God's covenant, and therefore
in this parshah, with its multitude of mitzvot and commandments, it
is appropriate to apply Maqam Saba.
Further
reading
The parshah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
- Laws of
Eshnunna 53–55. Sumer, circa
2100 B.C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., Reuven Yaron. The Laws of
Eshnunna. Brill Academic Publishers, 1997. ISBN 9004085343.
(ox that gores).
- Code of
Hammurabi 194–214, 250–51.
Babylonia, Circa 1780 B.C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., James B.
Pritchard. Ancient
Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 175,
178. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. ISBN 0691035032.
(lex talionis, ox that gores).
Biblical
Early
nonrabbinic
Classical
rabbinic
- Mishnah: Peah 8:9;
Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Terumot 3:6–7; Challah 4:10; Bikkurim 1:1–3:12;
Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Sukkah 1:1–5:8; Rosh Hashanah 2:9; Chagigah 1:1–3; Ketubot 3:2, 5:6; Sotah 3:8; Kiddushin 1:2–3; Bava Kamma 1:1–10:10; Bava Metzia 2:10, 3:12, 4:10, 5:11, 7:8–8:3; Sanhedrin 1:1, 4, 6, 7:6,
8:6, 9:1, 11:1; Avot 5:9; Zevachim 14:2; Chullin 8:4; Bekhorot 1:7, 8:7; Arakhin 3:1, 3–4; Zavim 2:3. Land of
Israel, circa 200 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New
Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 36, 68–93, 99, 158,
166–75, 229–51, 303, 328–29, 383, 388–89, 453, 487–88, 503–28, 533,
537, 540, 544, 548–51, 583–85, 598, 601–02, 607, 687, 730, 781,
790, 806, 812–13, 1111. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
ISBN 0-300-05022-4.
- Tosefta: Berakhot 4:15;
6:1; Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Terumot 7:8; Bikkurim 1:1–2:16; Shabbat
15:17; Pisha (Pesachim) 1:1–10:13; Shekalim 3:24; Sukkah 1:1–4:28;
Yom Tov (Beitzah) 2:12; Chagigah 1:1; Ketubot 3:7; 12:2; Nedarim
2:6; Sotah 8:7; 11:6; Bava Kamma 1:1–11:18; Bava Metzia 2:25–26;
4:2; 7:9–8:1; 8:20–21; Sanhedrin 3:2, 7; 11:5, 9; 12:3; Makkot
2:1–3:10; Shevuot 3:8; 5:2; 6:1, 3; Eduyot 1:15; Avodah Zarah 6:11;
Zevachim 8:26; Chullin 8:11; Arakhin 2:10; 3:2; 5:9. Land of
Israel, circa 300 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., The Tosefta:
Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction.
Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:25, 37, 178, 203–49, 345–53, 418,
471–522, 538, 567–84, 594, 663, 752, 778, 789, 870, 879;
2:951–1022, 1033, 1044, 1063–66, 1071–72, 1150, 1153–54, 1183–85,
1202–08, 1233–34, 1236, 1240–41, 1250, 1285, 1347, 1397, 1499,
1501, 1514. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 2002. ISBN
1-56563-642-2.
- Jerusalem
Talmud: Berakhot 39a, 60a, 72b, 88a; Peah 3a, 6b, 41b, 47b,
49a, 57b, 73a; Sheviit 1a–87b; Maaser Sheni 38a; Challah 47b, 48b;
Orlah 33b–34b; Bikkurim 1a–26b; Pesachim 1a–; Sukkah 1a–33b. Land
of Israel, circa 400 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud
Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr,
and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 1–3, 6b, 10–12, 22. Brooklyn: Mesorah
Pubs., 2005–2009.
- Mekhilta According to
Rabbi Ishmael 58:1–80:2. Land of Israel, late 4th Century.
Reprinted in, e.g., Mekhilta According to Rabbi Ishmael.
Translated by Jacob Neusner, vol. 2, 105–250. Atlanta: Scholars
Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-237-2.
- Babylonian Talmud: Sotah
23b; Arachin 29a; Gittin 65a. Babylonia, 6th Century. Reprinted in,
e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim
Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs.,
2006.
Medieval
- Exodus
Rabbah 30:1–32:9. 10th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash
Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by S. M. Lehrman, vol. 3: 346–413.
London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
- Rashi on Exodus 21–24. Troyes, France, late 11th
Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg. Rashi:
The Torah: With Rashi’s Commentary Translated, Annotated, and
Elucidated, vol. 2, 247–317. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications,
1994. ISBN 0-89906-027-7.
- Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:14; 3:1, 35, 47; 4:3, 11. Toledo, Spain,
1130–1140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An
Argument for the Faith of Israel. Intro. by Henry Slonimsky,
90, 135, 168, 175, 204, 217. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN
0-8052-0075-4.
- Maimonides. Mishneh Torah,
Intro.:1. Cairo, Egypt, 1170–1180.
- Zohar 2:94a–126a. Spain, late
13th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by
Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 vols. London: Soncino Press,
1934.
- Isaac
Abrabanel. Principles of Faith. Chs. 3, 5, 12, 17, 19.
Naples, Italy, 1494. Reprinted in, e.g., Isaac Abravanel.
Principles of Faith (Rosh Amanah). Translated by Menachem
Marc Kellner, 66, 76, 116, 118, 154, 171. Rutherford, N.J.:
Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8386-3080-4.
Modern
- Thomas
Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40.
England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, 503. Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950.
- Thomas Mann.
Joseph and His Brothers.
Translated by John
E. Woods, 305, 535–36. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN
1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine
Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
- Abraham Joshua Heschel.
Man's Quest for God: Studies in Prayer and Symbolism, 18.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1954.
- Jacob
Milgrom. “First fruits, OT.” In The Interpreter’s
Dictionary of the Bible. Supp. vol., 336–37. Nashville, Tenn.:
Abingdon, 1976. ISBN 0-687-19269-2.
- Jacob Milgrom. “‘You Shall Not Boil a Kid in Its Mother’s
Milk’: An archaeological myth destroyed.” Bible Review. 1
(3) (Fall 1985): 48–55.
- Aaron
Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the
Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel,
3–4. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993. ISBN
1-56000-081-3.
- Jacob Milgrom. “‘The Alien in Your Midst’: Every nation has its
ger: the permanent resident. The Torah commands us, first, not to
oppress the ger, and then to befriend and love him.” Bible
Review. 11 (6) (Dec. 1995).
- Jacob Milgrom. “Lex Talionis and the Rabbis: The Talmud
reflects an uneasy rabbinic conscience toward the ancient law of
talion, ‘eye for eye, tooth for tooth.’” Bible Review. 12
(2) (Apr. 1996).
- Baruch J. Schwartz. “What Really Happened at Mount Sinai? Four
biblical answers to one question.” Bible Review. 13 (5)
(Oct. 1997).
- Jack M. Sasson. “Should Cheeseburgers Be
Kosher? A Different Interpretation of Five Hebrew Words.”
Bible Review 19 (6) (Dec. 2003): 40–43, 50–51.
- Joseph
Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential
Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, 218–20,
275–78. New York: Bell Tower, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4509-6.
- Lawrence
Kushner. Kabbalah: A Love Story, 8. New York: Morgan
Road Books, 2006. ISBN 0-7679-2412-6.
- U.S. Department of
State. Trafficking in Persons
Report: June 2008.
- Gloria London. “Why Milk and Meat Don’t Mix: A New Explanation
for a Puzzling Kosher Law.” Biblical Archaeology
Review. 34 (6) (Nov./Dec. 2008): 66–69.
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