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Carl Jung in 1910.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions.^[1]:1 These preferences were extrapolated from the typological theories originated by Carl Gustav Jung, as published in his 1921 book Psychological Types (English edition, 1923).^[2] The original developers of the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. They began creating the indicator during World War II, believing that a knowledge of personality preferences would help women who were entering the industrial workforce for the first time identify the sort of war-time jobs where they would be "most comfortable and effective."^[1]:xiii The initial questionnaire grew into the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which was first published in 1962. The MBTI focuses on normal populations and emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences.^[3]

The MBTI instrument is called "the best-known and most trusted personality assessment tool available today"^[4] by its publisher, CPP (formerly Consulting Psychologists Press). CPP further calls the MBTI tool "the world’s most widely used personality assessment",^[5] with as many as two million assessments administered annually. Some academic psychologists have criticized the MBTI instrument, claiming that it "lacks convincing validity data".^[6][7][8][9] Proponents of the test, however, cite unblinded anecdotal predictions of individual behavior,^[10] and claim that the indicator has been found to meet or exceed the reliability of other psychological instruments.^[11] For most adults (75–90%), though not for children, the MBTI is reported to give the same result for 3–4 preferences when the test is administered to the same person more than once (although the period between measurements is not stated).^[12] Some studies have found strong support for construct validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability, although variation was observed.^[13][14]

The definitive published source of reference for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is The Manual produced by CPP,^[15] from which much of the information in this article is drawn, along with training materials from CPP and their European training partners, Oxford Psychologists Press. Also, a related model, with an original test, is published in David Keirsey's books Please Understand Me and Please Understand Me II.

The registered trademark rights to the terms Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and MBTI have been assigned from the publisher of the test, CPP, Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust.^[16]

Concepts

As the MBTI Manual states, the MBTI "is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI."^[17]:1

Fundamental to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the theory of psychological type as originally developed by Carl Jung.^[1]:xiii Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:

• The "rational" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling
• The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensing and intuition

Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form.^[1]:17 From Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based.

Type

The Myers-Briggs typology model regards personality type as similar to left or right handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of thinking and acting. The MBTI sorts some of these psychological differences into four opposite pairs, or dichotomies, with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these types are "better" or "worse"; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that individuals naturally prefer one overall combination of type differences.^[1]:9 In the same way that writing with the left hand is hard work for a right-hander, so people tend to find using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, even if they can become more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development.

The 16 types are typically referred to by an abbreviation of four letters—the initial letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of iNtuition, which uses the abbreviation N to distinguish it from Introversion).

For instance:

• ESTJ - Extraversion, Sensing, Thinking, Judgment
• INFP - Introversion, iNtuition, Feeling, Perception

And so on for all 16 possible type combinations.

Four dichotomies

The four pairs of preferences or dichotomies are shown in the table to the right.

Note that the terms used for each dichotomy have specific technical meanings relating to the MBTI which differ from their everyday usage. For example, people who prefer judgment over perception are not necessarily more judgmental or less perceptive.

Nor does the MBTI instrument measure aptitude; it simply indicates for one preference over another.^[17]:3 Someone reporting a high score for extraversion over introversion cannot be correctly described as more extraverted: they simply have a clear preference.

Point scores on each of the dichotomies can vary considerably from person to person, even among those with the same type. However, Isabel Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degree of the preference (for example, very clear vs. slight).^[15]

Attitudes: Extraversion (E) / Introversion (I)

The preferences for extraversion (thus spelled in Myers-Briggs jargon) and introversion are sometimes referred to as attitudes. Briggs and Myers recognized that each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people and things (extraverted attitude) or the internal world of ideas and reflection (introverted attitude). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator sorts for an overall preference for one or the other of these.

The terms extravert and introvert are used in a special sense when discussing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. People who prefer extraversion draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their level of energy and motivation tends to decline. Conversely, those who prefer introversion become less energized as they act: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again. People who prefer introversion need time out to reflect in order to rebuild energy.

The extravert's flow is directed outward toward people and objects, and the introvert's is directed inward toward concepts and ideas. There are several contrasting characteristics between extraverts and introverts: extraverts are action-oriented and desire breadth, while introverts are thought-oriented and seek depth. Extraverts often prefer more frequent interaction, while introverts prefer more substantial interaction.^[18]

Functions: Sensing (S) / iNtuition (N) and Thinking (T) / Feeling (F)

Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:

• The two perceiving functions, sensing and intuition
• The two judging functions, thinking and feeling

According to the Myers-Briggs typology model, each person uses one of these four functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances.

Sensing and intuition are the information-gathering (perceiving) functions. They describe how new information is understood and interpreted. Individuals who prefer sensing are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete: that is, information that can be understood by the five senses. They tend to distrust hunches that seem to come out of nowhere. They prefer to look for details and facts. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer intuition tend to trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be associated with other information (either remembered or discovered by seeking a wider context or pattern). They may be more interested in future possibilities. They tend to trust those flashes of insight that seem to bubble up from the unconscious mind. The meaning is in how the data relates to the pattern or theory.

Thinking and feeling are the decision-making (judging) functions. The thinking and feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved.

As noted already, people who prefer thinking do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, "think better" than their feeling counterparts; the opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a measure of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer feeling do not necessarily have "better" emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.

Dominant Function

Although people use all four cognitive functions, one function is generally used in a more conscious and confident way. This dominant function is supported by the secondary (auxiliary) function, and to a lesser degree the tertiary function. The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Myers called this inferior function the shadow.^[1]:84

The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (extraversion and introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or introverted way. A person whose dominant function is extraverted intuition, for example, uses intuition very differently from someone whose dominant function is introverted intuition.

Lifestyle: Judgment (J) / Perception (P)

Myers and Briggs added another dimension to Jung's typological model by identifying that people also have a preference for using either the judging function (thinking or feeling) or their perceiving function (sensing or intuition) when relating to the outside world (extraversion).

Myers and Briggs held that types with a preference for judgment show the world their preferred judging function (thinking or feeling). So TJ types tend to appear to the world as logical, and FJ types as empathetic. According to Myers,^[1]:75 judging types like to "have matters settled." Those types who prefer perception show the world their preferred perceiving function (sensing or intuition). So SP types tend to appear to the world as concrete and NP types as abstract. According to Myers,^[1]:75 perceptive types prefer to "keep decisions open."

For extraverts, the J or P indicates their dominant function; for introverts, the J or P indicates their auxiliary function. Introverts tend to show their dominant function outwardly only in matters "important to their inner worlds."^[1]:13 For example:

Because ENTJ types are extraverts, the J indicates that their dominant function is their preferred judging function (extraverted thinking). ENTJ types introvert their auxiliary perceiving function (introverted intuition). The tertiary function is sensing and the inferior function is introverted feeling.

Because INTJ types are introverts, the J indicates that their auxiliary function is their preferred judging function (extraverted thinking). INTJ types introvert their dominant perceiving function (introverted intuition). The tertiary function is feeling, and the inferior function is extraverted sensing.

Whole type

The expression of a person's psychological type is more than the sum of the four individual preferences, because of the way in which the preferences interact through type dynamics and type development. Descriptions of each type can be found on the Myers & Briggs Foundation website. In-depth descriptions of each type, including statistics, can be found in the MBTI Manual.^[15]

Historical development

Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917. Upon meeting her future son-in-law, she observed marked differences between his personality and that of other family members. Briggs embarked on a project of reading biographies, and she developed a typology based on patterns she found. She proposed four temperaments: Meditative (or Thoughtful), Spontaneous, Executive, and Social.^[19][20] Then, after the English translation of Psychological Types was published in 1923 (having first been published in German in 1921), she recognized that Jung's theory was similar to, yet went far beyond, her own.^[1]:22 Briggs's four types were later identified as corresponding to the Is, EPs, ETJs and EFJs.^[19][20] Her first publications were two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal New Republic in 1926 (Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism).

Briggs's daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely. Myers graduated first in her class from Swarthmore College in 1919^[1]:xx and wrote the prize-winning mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in 1929 using typological ideas. However, neither Myers nor Briggs were formally educated in psychology, and thus they lacked scientific credentials in the field of psychometric testing.^[1]:xiii So Myers apprenticed herself to Edward N. Hay, who was then personnel manager for a large Philadelphia bank and went on to start one of the first successful personnel consulting firms in the U.S. From Hay, Myers learned test construction, scoring, validation, and statistics.^{[1]:xiii, xx} In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator" was created, and the Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) in 1956.^[21][22]

Myers' work attracted the attention of Henry Chauncey, head of the Educational Testing Service, and under these auspices, the first MBTI Manual was published in 1962. The MBTI received further support from Donald T. McKinnon, head of the Institute of Personality Research at the University of California; Harold Grant, professor at Michigan State and Auburn Universities; and Mary H. McCaulley of the University of Florida. The publication of the MBTI was transferred to Consulting Psychologists Press in 1975, and the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) was founded as a research laboratory.^[1]:xxi After Myers' death in May 1980, Mary McCaulley updated the MBTI Manual, and the second edition was published in 1985.^[15] The third edition appeared in 1998.

Differences from Jung

Judgment vs. Perception

The most notable addition of Myers and Briggs to Jung's original thought is their concept that a given type's fourth letter (J or P) is determined by how that type interacts with the external world, rather than by the type's dominant function. The difference becomes evident when assessing the cognitive functions of introverts.^[1]:21-22

To Jung, a type with dominant introverted thinking, for example, would be considered rational (judging) because the decision-making function is dominant. To Myers, however, that same type would be irrational (perceiving) because the individual uses an information-gathering function (either extraverted intuition or extraverted sensing) when interacting with the outer world.

Orientation of the tertiary function
Jung theorized that the dominant function acts alone in its preferred world: exterior for the extraverts, and interior for the introverts. The remaining three functions, he suggested, operate together in the opposite world. If the dominant cognitive function is introverted, the other functions are extraverted, and vice versa. The MBTI Manual summarizes references in Jung's work to the balance in psychological type as follows:

There are several references in Jung's writing to the three remaining functions having an opposite attitudinal character. For example, in writing about introverts with thinking dominant...Jung commented that the counterbalancing functions have an extraverted character.^[15]:29

However, many MBTI practitioners hold that the tertiary function is oriented in the same direction as the dominant function.^[23] Using the INTP type as an example, the orientation would be as follows:

• Dominant introverted thinking
• Auxiliary extraverted intuition
• Tertiary introverted sensing
• Inferior extraverted feeling

From a theoretical perspective, noted psychologist H.J. Eysenck calls the MBTI a moderately successful quantification of Jung's original principles as outlined in Psychological Types.^[24] However, both models remain theory, with no controlled scientific studies supporting either Jung's original concept of type or the Myers-Briggs variation.^[25]

Applications

The indicator is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, career counseling, team building, group dynamics, professional development, marketing, leadership training, executive coaching, life coaching, personal development, marriage counseling, and workers' compensation claims.

Format and administration

The current North American English version of the MBTI Step I includes 93 forced-choice questions (there are 88 in the European English version). Forced-choice means that the individual has to choose only one of two possible answers to each question. The choices are a mixture of word pairs and short statements. Choices are not literal opposites but chosen to reflect opposite preferences on the same dichotomy. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose.

Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the MBTI will then be scored and will attempt to identify the preference, and clarity of preference, in each dichotomy. After taking the MBTI, participants are usually asked to complete a Best Fit exercise (see above) and then given a readout of their Reported Type, which will usually include a bar graph and number to show how clear they were about each preference when they completed the questionnaire.

During the early development of the MBTI thousands of items were used. Most were eventually discarded because they did not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item did not, on average, move an individual score away from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the MBTI to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as other instruments with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The MBTI requires five points one way or another to indicate a clear preference.

Additional formats

Isabel Myers had noted that people of any given type shared differences as well as similarities. At the time of her death, she was developing a more in-depth method of measuring how people express and experience their individual type pattern. This tool is called the MBTI Step II.

A Step III is also being developed in a joint project involving the following organizations: CPP, the publisher of the whole family of MBTI works; CAPT (Center for Applications of Psychological Type), which holds all of Myers' and McCaulley's original work; and the MBTI Trust, headed by Katharine and Peter Myers. Step III will further address the use of perception and judgment by respondents.^[26]

In addition, the Type Differentiation Indicator (TDI) (Saunders, 1989) is a scoring system for the longer MBTI, Form J,^[27] which includes the 20 subscales above, plus a Comfort-Discomfort factor (which purportedly corresponds to the missing factor of Neuroticism). This factor includes seven additional scales to indicate a sense of overall comfort and confidence versus discomfort and anxiety: guarded-optimistic, defiant-compliant, carefree-worried, decisive-ambivalent, intrepid-inhibited, leader-follower, and proactive-distractible. Also included is a composite of these called "strain." Each of these comfort-discomfort subscales also loads onto one of the four type dimensions, for example, proactive-distractible is also a judging-perceiving subscale. There are also scales for type-scale consistency and comfort-scale consistency. Reliability of 23 of the 27 TDI subscales is greater than .50, "an acceptable result given the brevity of the subscales" (Saunders, 1989).

Precepts and ethics

The following precepts are generally used in the ethical administration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:

Type not trait

The MBTI sorts for type; it does not indicate the strength of ability. The questionnaire allows the clarity of a preference to be ascertained (Bill clearly prefers introversion), but not the strength of preference (Jane strongly prefers extraversion) or degree of aptitude (Harry is good at thinking). In this sense, it differs from trait-based tools such as 16PF. Type preferences are polar opposites: a precept of MBTI is that people fundamentally prefer one thing over the other, not a bit of both.

Own best judge

Individuals are considered the best judge of their own type. While the MBTI questionnaire provides a Reported Type, this is considered only an indication of their probable overall Type. A Best Fit Process is usually used to allow respondents to develop their understanding of the four dichotomies, to form their own hypothesis as to their overall Type, and to compare this against the Reported Type. In more than 20% of cases, the hypothesis and the Reported Type differ in one or more dichotomies. Using the clarity of each preference, any potential for bias in the report, and often, a comparison of two or more whole Types may then help respondents determine their own Best Fit.

No right or wrong

No preference or total type is considered "better" or "worse" than another. They are all Gifts Differing, as emphasized by the title of Isabel Briggs Myers' book on this subject.

Voluntary

It is considered unethical to compel anyone to take the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. It should always be taken voluntarily.^[28]

Confidentiality

The result of the MBTI Reported and Best Fit type are confidential between the individual and administrator and, ethically, not for disclosure without permission.

Not for selection

The results of the assessment should not be used to "label, evaluate, or limit the respondent in any way."^[28] Since all types are valuable, and the MBTI measures preferences rather than aptitude, the MBTI is not considered a proper instrument for purposes of employment selection. Many professions contain highly competent individuals of different types with complementary preferences.

Importance of proper feedback

Individuals should always be given detailed feedback from a trained administrator and an opportunity to undertake a Best Fit exercise to check against their Reported Type. This feedback can be given in person or, where this is not practical, by telephone or electronically.

Type dynamics and development

The interaction of two, three, or four preferences is known as type dynamics. Although type dynamics has garnered little or no empirical support to substantiate its viability as a scientific theory,^[30] Myers and Briggs asserted that for each of the 16 four-preference types, one function is the most dominant and is likely to be evident earliest in life. A secondary or auxiliary function typically becomes more evident (differentiated) during teenage years and provides balance to the dominant. In normal development individuals tend to become more fluent with a third, tertiary function during mid life, while the fourth, inferior function remains least consciously developed. The inferior function is often considered to be more associated with the unconscious, being most evident in situations such as high stress (sometimes referred to as being in the grip of the inferior function).

The sequence of differentiation of dominant, auxiliary, and tertiary functions through life is termed type development. Note that this is an idealized sequence that may be disrupted by major life events.

The dynamic sequence of functions and their attitudes can be determined in the following way:

• The overall lifestyle preference (J-P) determines whether the judging (T-F) or perceiving (S-N) preference is most evident in the outside world, i.e., which function has an extraverted attitude

• The attitude preference (E-I) determines whether the extraverted function is dominant or auxiliary

• For those with an overall preference for extraversion, the function with the extraverted attitude will be the dominant function. For example, for an ESTJ type the dominant function is the judging function, thinking, and this is experienced with an extraverted attitude. This is notated as a dominant Te. For an ESTP, the dominant function is the perceiving function, sensing, notated as a dominant Se.

• The Auxiliary function for extraverts is the secondary preference of the judging or perceiving functions, and it is experienced with an introverted attitude: for example, the auxiliary function for ESTJ is introverted sensing (Si) and the auxiliary for ESTP is introverted thinking (Ti).

• For those with an overall preference for introversion, the function with the extraverted attitude is the auxiliary; the dominant is the other function in the main four letter preference. So the dominant function for ISTJ is introverted sensing (Si) with the auxiliary (supporting) function being extraverted thinking (Te).

• The Tertiary function is the opposite preference from the Auxiliary. For example, if the Auxiliary is thinking then the Tertiary would be feeling. The attitude of the Tertiary is the subject of some debate and therefore is not normally indicated, i.e. if the Auxiliary was Te then the Tertiary would be F (not Fe or Fi)

• The Inferior function is the opposite preference and attitude from the Dominant, so for an ESTJ with dominant Te the Inferior would be Fi.

Note that for extraverts, the dominant function is the one most evident in the external world. For introverts, however, it is the auxiliary function that is most evident externally, as their dominant function relates to the interior world.

Some examples of whole types may clarify this further. Taking the ESTJ example above:

• Extraverted function is a judging function (T-F) because of the overall J preference
• Extraverted function is dominant because of overall E preference
• Dominant function is therefore extraverted thinking (Te)
• Auxiliary function is the preferred perceiving function: introverted sensing (Si)
• Tertiary function is the opposite of the Auxiliary: intuition
• Inferior function is the opposite of the Dominant: introverted feeling (Fi)

The dynamics of the ESTJ are found in the primary combination of extraverted thinking as their dominant function and introverted sensing as their auxiliary function: the dominant tendency of ESTJs to order their environment, to set clear boundaries, to clarify roles and timetables, and to direct the activities around them is supported by their facility for using past experience in an ordered and systematic way to help organize themselves and others. For instance, ESTJs may enjoy planning trips for groups of people to achieve some goal or to perform some culturally uplifting function. Because of their ease in directing others and their facility in managing their own time, they engage all the resources at their disposal to achieve their goals. However, under prolonged stress or sudden trauma, ESTJs may overuse their extraverted thinking function and fall into the grip of their inferior function, introverted feeling. Although the ESTJ can seem insensitive to the feelings of others in their normal activities, under tremendous stress, they can suddenly express feelings of being unappreciated or wounded by insensitivity.

Looking at the diametrically opposite four-letter type, INFP:

• Extraverted function is a perceiving function (S-N) because of the P preference
• Introverted function is dominant because of the I preference
• Dominant function is therefore introverted feeling (Fi)
• Auxiliary function is extraverted intuition (Ne)
• Tertiary function is the opposite of the Auxiliary: sensing
• Inferior function is the opposite of the Dominant: extraverted thinking (Te)

The dynamics of the INFP rest on the fundamental correspondence of introverted feeling and extraverted intuition. The dominant tendency of the INFP is toward building a rich internal framework of values and toward championing human rights. They often devote themselves behind the scenes to causes such as civil rights or saving the environment. Since they tend to avoid the limelight, postpone decisions, and maintain a reserved posture, they are rarely found in executive-director type positions of the organizations that serve those causes. Normally, the INFP dislikes being "in charge" of things. When not under stress, the INFP radiates a pleasant and sympathetic demeanor; but under extreme stress, they can suddenly become rigid and directive, exerting their extraverted thinking erratically.

Every type—and its opposite—is the expression of these interactions, which give each type its unique, recognizable signature.

Expansion of the theory

Related instruments

Other personality type instruments based on the Myers-Briggs theory include the Golden Personality Type Profile and the Majors Personality Type Indicator.

Brain halves

Some have theorized that the cognitive functions may correlate to the Lateralization of brain function.^[31] Others claim, however, that this proposed correlation has no scientific basis.^{[citation needed]}

Correlations to other instruments

Keirsey Temperaments

David W. Keirsey mapped four 'temperaments' to the existing Myers-Briggs system groupings SP, SJ, NF and NT; this often results in confusion of the two theories. However, the Keirsey Temperament Sorter is not directly associated with the official Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

Big Five

McCrae and Costa^[7] present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal study of aging. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big Five personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extraversion and openness respectively, while T-F and J-P are moderately related to agreeableness and conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent from the original MBTI (though the TDI, discussed above, has addressed that dimension).

These findings led McCrae and Costa, the formulators of the Five Factor Theory,^[32] to conclude, "correlational analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did measure aspects of four of the five major dimensions of normal personality. The five-factor model provides an alternative basis for interpreting MBTI findings within a broader, more commonly shared conceptual framework." However, "there was no support for the view that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences or qualitatively distinct types, instead, the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."

Criticism

Origins of the theory

Jung's theory of psychological type, as published in his 1921 book, was not tested through controlled scientific studies.^[25] Jung's methods primarily included clinical observation, introspection and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the modern field of psychology.^[25]

Jung's type theory introduced a sequence of four cognitive functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuition), each having one of two orientations (extraverted or introverted), for a total of eight functions. The Myers-Briggs theory is based on these eight functions, although with some differences in expression (see Differences from Jung above). However, neither the Myers-Briggs nor the Jungian models offer any scientific, experimental proof to support the existence, the sequence, the orientation, or the manifestation of these functions.^[25]

Validity

The statistical validity of the MBTI as a psychometric instrument has been the subject of criticism. It has been estimated that between a third and a half of the published material on the MBTI has been produced for conferences of the Center for the Application of Psychological Type (which provides training in the MBTI) or as papers in the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited by Myers-Briggs advocates).^[33] It has been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny.^[33][34]

The accuracy of the MBTI depends on honest self-reporting by the person tested.^[17]:52-53 Unlike some personality measures, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory or the Personality Assessment Inventory, the MBTI does not use validity scales to assess exaggerated or socially desirable responses.^[35] As a result, individuals motivated to do so can fake their responses,^[36] and one study found that the MBTI judgment/perception dimension correlates with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire lie scale.^[37] If respondents "fear they have something to lose, they may answer as they assume they should."^[17]:53

Also, the MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests (in which participants are given reports written for other participants, then asked whether the report suits them), and thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment.^{[citation needed]}

With regard to factor analysis, one study of 1291 college-aged students found six different factors instead of the four used in the MBTI.^[38] In other studies, researchers found that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another.^[7]

Reliability

Some researchers have interpreted the reliability of the test as being low. Studies have found that between 39% and 76% of those tested fall into different types upon retesting some weeks or years later.^[9][34]

One study reports that the MBTI dichotomies exhibit good split-half reliability; however, the dichotomy scores are distributed in a bell curve, and the overall type allocations are less reliable. Also, test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. Within each dichotomy scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorizations remain the same when individuals are retested within nine months, and around 75% when individuals are retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type, and 36% remain the same type after more than nine months.^[39] For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI instrument), these scores are higher (see MBTI Manual, p. 163, Table 8.6).

In one study, when people were asked to compare their preferred type to that assigned by the MBTI, only half of people picked the same profile.^[40] Critics also argue that the MBTI lacks falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias in the interpretation of results.

Statistical structure

The instrument's dichotomous scoring of dimensions has also been subject to criticism. For example, some researchers expected that scores would show a bimodal distribution with peaks near the ends of the scales, but found that scores on the individual subscales were actually distributed in a centrally peaked manner similar to a normal distribution. A cut-off exists at the center of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the opposite type. This fails to support the concept of type: the norm is for people to lie near the middle of the subscale.^{[7][8][9][34][41]} Nevertheless, "the absence of bimodal score distributions does not necessarily prove that the 'type'-based approach is incorrect."^[41]

Utility

The relevance of the MBTI for career planning has been questioned, with reservations about the relevance of type to job performance or satisfaction, and concerns about the potential misuse of the instrument in labeling individuals.^[34][42] In her original research, Isabel Myers found that the proportion of different personality types varied by choice of career or course of study.^{[1]:40-51[15]} However, some other researchers examining the proportions of each type within varying professions report that the proportion of MBTI types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population.^[34]

Also, the efficiency of MBTI in an organizational setting has been subject to scrutiny. In 1991 three scholars at the University of Western Ontario analyzed the results of 97 independent studies that evaluated the effectiveness of personality tests in predicting job success and job satisfaction ("Personnel Psychology," winter 1991). The results of the nationwide study challenged the effectiveness of the MBTI when related to individual performance and satisfaction in a corporate setting.

“The validity coefficient for personality tests in predicting job success was found to average 0.29 (on a scale of 0 to 1). The corresponding average validity for the MBTI, however, was a weak 0.12. In fact, each study that examined the MBTI found its validity to be below acceptable levels of statistical significance.”^[43]

However, as noted above under Precepts and ethics, the MBTI measures preference, not ability. The use of the MBTI as a predictor of job success is expressly discouraged in the Manual.^[17]:78 It is not designed to be used for this purpose.

Skepticism

Skeptics criticize the terminology of the MBTI as being so "vague and general"^[44] as to allow any kind of behavior to fit any personality type. They claim that this results in the Forer effect, where individuals give a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them.^[25][34] Others argue that while the MBTI type descriptions are brief, they are also distinctive and precise.^[45]:14-15 Some theorists, such as David Keirsey, have expanded on the MBTI descriptions, providing even greater detail. For instance, Keirsey's descriptions of his four temperaments, which he correlated with the sixteen MBTI personality types, show how the temperaments differ in terms of language use, intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self image, personal values, social roles, and characteristic hand gestures.^[45]:32-207

See also

• Big Five personality traits
• DISC assessment
• Enneagram of Personality
• False dilemma
• Family therapy
• Holland Codes
• Humorism
• Interaction Styles
• Interpersonal compatibility
• Keirsey Temperament Sorter
• Socionics
• List of tests
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
• Personality psychology
• Psychometrics
• Kingdomality Personal Preference Profile

Notes

References and further reading

• Hunsley, J.; Lee, C.M.; and Wood, J.M. (2004). Controversial and questionable assessment techniques. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1-59385-070-0
• Bess, T.L.; and Harvey, R.J. (2001, April). Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego.
• Bess, T.L.; Harvey, R.J.; and Swartz, D. (2003). Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando.
• Bourne, Dana (2005). Personality Types and the Transgender Community. Retrieved November 14, 2005
• Falt, Jack. Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author. Retrieved December 20, 2004
• Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
• Jung, Carl Gustav (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207
• Jung, C. G. (1971). Psychological types (Collected works of C. G. Jung, volume 6). (3rd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. First appeared in German in 1921. ISBN 0-691-09770-4
• Killian, Shaun (2007). More About the MBTI, personality and its impact on your effectiveness, MBTI Online.
• Matthews, Paul (2004). The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality. bmj.com Rapid Responses. Retrieved February 9, 2005
• Myers, Isabel Briggs (1980). Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Davies-Black Publishing; Reprint edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 0-89106-074-X
• Pearman, R.; Lombardo, M.; and Eichinger, R.(2005). YOU: Being More Effective In Your MBTI Type. Minn.:Lominger International, Inc.
• Pearman, R.; and Albritton, S. (1996). I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You: The Real Meaning of the Sixteen Personality Types. Mountain View, Ca: Davies-Black Publishing.
• Personality Plus. Employers love personality tests. But what do they really reveal?
• Saunders, D. (1989). Type Differentiation Indicator Manual: A scoring system for Form J of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
• Skeptics Dictionary. "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator" [1]
• Virginia Tech. The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers. Retrieved December 20, 2004
• Thomas G. Long (October 1992). "Myers-Briggs and other Modern Astrologies". Theology Today 49 (3): 291–95. 

External links

Official websites

• The Myers & Briggs Foundation
• CPP, Publisher of the MBTI
• Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT)
• Association for Psychological Type International

Assessing type in children

• Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children (MMTIC) at CAPT website

Criticism of the MBTI

• Measuring the MBTI and Coming Up Short
• Information from the Skeptic's Dictionary
• Personality Type Theory

Type profiles

• Functional analysis of the types at TypeLogic.com
• Type portraits at PersonalityPage.com
• Types at KnowYourType.com

Free online Jungian typology assessments
(note that some other assessments offered on these sites may not be free)

• HumanMetrics
• Personality Test Center
• Similar Minds

From Wikiquote

The groundwork for theories of psychological type were laid in 1921 with Carl Gustav Jung's pioneering work "Psychological Types" (ISBN 0691097704). After its translation from German into English in 1923, Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother began studying Jung's work, and in 1942 they published the first version of a test intended to identify which type category a person fit into, named the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

The following quotes are from prominent figures in the short history of psychological type who have based their theories, writings, and systemics on the four basic cognitive functions initially conceived of by Jung, which are sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling. Each of these will be in a certain attitude, either introverted or extraverted. Notably, Jung did not have the dichotomy of Judgement / Perception, which is a theory of Myers, and Jung's attention to the Conscious and Unconscious are not made explicit in Myers' theories. There is also skeptical speculation that Jung did not approve of Myers' test.

Carl Gustav Jung

Introversion / Extraversion

• "There is, finally, a third group, and here it is hard to say whether the motivation comes chiefly from within or without. This group is the most numerous and includes the less differentiated normal man" (Jung, 1971. Jung, C. G. (1971). Psychological types. In W. McGuire (Ed.) The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 6), Bollinger Series XX. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.)
• Attitudes signifies expectation, and expectation always operates selectively and with a sense of direction.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 688, Page 415)
• When a function habitually predominates, a typical attitude is produced. According to the nature of the differentiated function, there will be constellations of contents that create a corresponding attitude.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 691, Page 417)
• Only a limited number of contents can be held in the conscious field at the same time, and of these only a few can attain the highest grade of consciousness. The activity of consciousness is selective. Selection demands direction. But direction requires the exclusion of everything irrelevant. This is bound to make the conscious orientation one-sided. The contents that are excluded and inhibited by the chosen direction sink into the unconscious, where they form a counterweight to the conscious orientation.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 694, Page 419)
• Just as there is a relation to the outer object, an outer attitude, there is a relation to the inner object, an inner attitude.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 801, Page 466)
• One cannot be introverted or extraverted without being so in every respect. For example, to be “introverted” means that everything in the psyche happens as it must happen according to the law of the introvert’s nature.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 939, Page 534)
• Introversion or extraversion, as the typical attitude, means an essential bias which conditions the whole psychic process, establishes the habitual mode of reaction, and thus determines not only the style of behaviour but also the quality of subjective experience. Not only that, it determines the kind of compensation the unconscious will produce.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 940, Page 534)
• But there is no energy unless there is a tension of opposites; hence it is necessary to discover the opposite to the attitude of the conscious mind.(Two Essays on Analytical Psychology by C G Jung : Para 78, Page 53)
• The introvert does possess an extraverted attitude, but it is unconscious, because his conscious gaze is always turned to the subject.(Two Essays on Analytical Psychology by C G Jung : Para 81, Page 56)
• …experience shows that there is only one consciously directed function of adaptation.(On the Nature of the Psyche by C G Jung : Line 15, Page 25)
• The attitude of the unconscious as an effective complement to the conscious extraverted attitude has a definitely introverted character.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 570, Page 337)
• Generally speaking, the compensating attitude of the unconscious finds expression in the maintenance of the psychic equilibrium.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 575, Page 340
• We call a mode of behaviour extraverted only when the mechanism of extraversion predominates. In these cases the most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, where as the inferior functions are introverted; in other words, the superior function is the most conscious one and completely under conscious control, whereas the less differentiated functions are in part unconscious and far less under the control of consciousness.(Psychological Types by C G Jung : Para 575, Page 340)
• I made a discovery that was shocking to me, namely the fact of this extraverted personality, which every introvert carries within him in his unconscious, and which I had been projecting upon my friends to their detriment.(Analytical Psychology by C G Jung : Line 1, Page 32)
• Just as all energy proceeds from opposition, so the psyche too possesses its inner polarity, this being the indisputable prerequisite for its aliveness.(Memories, Dreams, Reflections : Line 22, Page 379)

Sensing / Intuition

Feeling / Thinking

• The extravert’s [extraverted] feeling is always in harmony with objective values. … even when it appears not to be qualified by a concrete object, it is none the less still under the spell of traditional or generally accepted values of some kind. I may feel moved, for instance, to say that something is “beautiful” or “good”, not because I find it “beautiful” or “good” from my own subjective feeling about it, but because it is fitting and politic to call it so, since a contrary judgment would upset the general feeling situation. A feeling judgment of this kind is not by any means a pretense or a lie, it is simply an act of adjustment.(Psychological Types, CW6, paragraph 595. The Portable Jung, page 207)
• "But one can feel “correctly” only when feeling is not disturbed by anything else. Nothing disturbs feeling so much as thinking." (Psychological Types, CW6, paragraph 598. The Portable Jung, page 209)
• In so far as feeling is compliant and lets itself be subordinated, it has to support the conscious attitude and adapt to its aims. But this is possible only up to a point; part of it remains refractory and has to be repressed. (Psychological Types, The Extraverted Thinking Type, CW6, paragraph 588. The Portable Jung, page 200.)
• "FEELING. I am unable to support the psychological school that considers feeling a secondary phenomenon dependent on "representations" or sensations, but ... I regard it as an independent function sui generis" (723)
  • "Feeling is primarily a process that ... imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection ("like" or "dislike")". (724)
    • "Even an "indifferent" sensation possesses a feeling-tone, namely that of indifference, which again expresses some sort of valuation. Hence feeling is a kind of judgment, differing from intellectual judgment in that its aim is not to establish conceptual relations but to set up a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection. Valuation by feeling extends to every content of consciousness, of whatever kind it may be. When the intensity of feeling increases, it turns into an affect, i.e., a feeling state accompanied by marked physical innervations. Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it produces no perceptible physical innervations, i.e., neither more nor less than an ordinary thinking process." (725)
      • "Ordinary, "simple" feeling is concrete, that is, it is mixed up with other functional elements, more particularly with sensations. In this case we call it affective or, as I have done in this book, feeling-sensation, by which I mean an almost inseparable amalgam of feeling and sensation elements. This characteristic amalgamation is found wherever feeling is still an undifferentiated function, and is most evident in the psyche of a neurotic with differentiated thinking. Although feeling is, in itself, an independent function, it can easily become dependent on another function – thinking, for instance; it is then a mere concomitant of thinking, and is not repressed only in so far as it accommodates itself to the thinking processes." (726) (Psychological Types, CW6, DEFINITIONS, paragraphs 723-726.)
• Hence his thinking is of value for his contemporaries only so long as it is manifestly and intelligibly related to the known facts of the time. Once it has become mythological, it ceases to be relevant and runs on in itself. (Psychological Types, The Introverted Thinking Type, CW6, paragraph 637. The Portable Jung, page 244.)

Conscious / Unconscious

• "It should not be imagined that the unconscious lies permanently buried under so many overlying strata that it can only be uncovered, so to speak, by a laborious process of excavation. On the contrary, there is a constant influx of unconscious contents into the conscious psychological process, to such a degree that at times it is hard for the observer to decide which character traits belong to the conscious and which to the unconscious personality. … Naturally it also depends very largely on the attitude of the observer whether he seizes hold of the conscious or the unconscious character of the personality. … We must observe which function is completely under conscious control, and which functions have a haphazard and spontaneous character … the latter possess infantile and primitive traits.(Psychological Types, CW6, paragraph 576. The Portable Jung, pages 191-192.)
• "Discrimination is the sine qua non of cognition. But discrimination means splitting up the contents of consciousness into discrete functions. Therefore, if we wish to define the psychological peculiarity of a man in terms that will satisfy not only our own subjective judgment but also the object judged, we must take as our criterion that state or attitude which is felt by the object to be the conscious, normal condition. Accordingly, we shall make his conscious motives our first concern, while eliminating as far as possible our own arbitrary interpretations."(Psychological Types, CW6, paragraph 891.)

Other

• "The term Inferior Function is used to denote the function that lags behind in the process of differentiation. Experience shows that it is practically impossible, owing to adverse circumstances in general, for anyone to develop all of his psychological functions simultaneously. The demands of society compel a man to apply himself first and foremost to the diffferentiation of the function with which he is best equipped by nature, or which will secure him the greatest social success. As a general rule a man identifies more or less completely with the most favored and hence the most developed function. It is this that gives rise to psychological types. As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are neccessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior in a psychological, not a psychopathalogical sense, since they are in no way morbid but merely backward as compared with the favored function. Although the inferior function may be conscious as a phenomenon, its true significance nevertheless remains unrecognized. It behaves like many repressed or insufficiently appreciated contents, which are partly conscious and partly unconscious, just as, very often, one knows a certain person from his outward appearance but does not know him as he really is." C. G. Jung (1934). Psychological Types (pages 450-451)
• We know, however, that the mind cannot be a tabularasa...certain categories of thinking are given a priori; they are antecedent to all experience and appear with the first act of thought, of which they are preformed determinants... The new-born brain is an immensely old instrument fitted out for quite specific purposes, which does not apperceive passively but actively arranges the experiences of its own accord and enforces certain conclusions and judgements. They are...a kind of pre-existent ground plan...or inherited functional possibilities which, nevertheless, exclude other possibilities or at any rate limit them to a very great extent. They are...like invisible stage managers behind the scenes. C.G. Jung (1934). Psychological Types (Section 512)
• How fantasy is assessed by psychology, so long as this remains merely science, is illustrated by the well-known views of Freud and Adler. The characteristic animosity between the adherents of the two standpoints arises from the fact that either standpoint necessarily involves a devaluation and disparagement of the other. So long as the radical difference ... is not recognized, either side must naturally hold its respective theory to be universally valid. (Psychological Types, CW6, paragraph 88.)
• "In complete contrast to the old system of classification by temperaments, the new typology begins with the explicit agreement neither to allow oneself to be judged by affect nor to judge others by it, since no one can declare himself finally identical with his affect." (Psychological Types, CW6, PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES lecture 1923, paragraph 889)
  • "... begin with the explicit agreement neither to allow oneself to be judged by affect nor to judge others by it ... the affect is considered an exceptional state whose qualities are represented either as a falsification of the “real” personality or as not belonging to it as an authentic attribute. What then is the “real” personality? Obviously, it is partly that which everyone distinguishes in himself as separate from affect, and partly that in everyone which is dismissed as inauthentic in the judgment of others. … In the affective state it [the ego] is unfree, driven, coerced. By contrast, the normal state is a state of free will, with all one’s powers at one’s disposal. In other words, the affective state is unproblematical, while the normal state is problematical: it comprises both the problem and possibility of free choice. In this latter state an understanding becomes possible, because in it alone can one discern one’s motives and gain self-knowledge.(Psychological Types, CW6, paragraphs 889,891.)
    • " AFFECT. By the term affect I mean a state of feeling characterized by marked physical innervation on the one hand and a peculiar disturbance of the ideational process on the other. I use emotion as synonymous with affect. I distinguish ... feeling from affect, in spite of the fact that the dividing line is fluid, since every feeling, after attaining a certain strength, releases physical innervations, thus becoming an affect. For practical reasons, however, it is advisable to distinguish affect from feeling, since feeling can be a voluntarily disposable function, whereas affect is usually not. Similarly, affect is clearly distinguished from feeling by quite perceptible physical innervations, while feeling for the most part lacks them, or else their intensity is so slight that they can be demonstrated only by the most delicate instruments ..." (Psychological Types, CW6, DEFINITIONS, paragraph 681.)

Isabel Briggs Myers

Introversion/Extraversion

Sensing/Intuition

Thinking/Feeling

• (Extraverted Feeling) "Its soundness and value do not lie in the individual, but outside in the collective ideals of the community, which are usually accepted without question. Its goal is the formation and maintenance of easy and harmonious emotional relationships with other people. "(Gifts Differing, by Isabel Briggs Myers, page 79)
• "Introverted feeling types have a wealth of warmth and enthusiasm, but they may not show it until they know someone well. They wear their warm side inside, like a fur-lined coat." (Gifts Differing, by Isabel Briggs Myers, page 96)

Judgment/Perception

• "These basic differences concern the way people "prefer" to use their minds, specifically the way they perceive and the way they make judgements. "Perceiving" is here understood to include the processes of becoming aware of things, people, occurrences and ideas. "Judgment" includes the processes of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived. Together, perception and judgement make up a large portion of a person's total mental activity. They govern much of their outer behavior, because perception -- by definition -- determines what people see in a situation and their judgment determines what they decide to do about it. Thus it is reasonable that basic differences in perception or judgment should result in correpspdonding differences in behavior. (Isabel Briggs Myers (1980). Gifts Differing (page 1).
• "A generally perceptive attitude is perfectly consistent with firm parental discipline. Discipline is needed to enforce the fundamentals, preferably a few fundamentals. If children observe those faithfully, they are acceptable members of society, and just like grown-ups, they are entitled to be spared a running commentary on their every act." (Isabel Briggs Myers (1980). Gifts Differing (page 72).

Other

• "This book is written in the belief that many problems might be dealt with more successfully if approached in the light of C.G. Jung's theory of psychological types. The first English translation of his Psychological Types was published by Harcourt brace in 1923. My mother, Katharine C. Briggs, introduced it into our family and made it part of our lives. She and I waited a long time for someone to devise an instrument that would reflect not only one's preference for extraversion or introversion, but one's preferred kind of perception and judgement as well. In the summer of 1942 we undertook to do it ourselves. Since then the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has yielded a wide range of information about the practical bearing of type. (Isabel Briggs Myers (1980). Gifts Differing (Preface)
• "In the darkest days of World War II when the Germans were rolling irresistibly along and my shoulders ached with trying to hold them back and a horrible sinking feeling lived in the pit of my stomach, the thought came to me one day (I was making my bed at the time) that by letting them spoil my life that I way I was helping them win, bringing destruction to pass by my own doing. So I stopped, just like that. I made up my mind that there was no logical justification for turning possible future unhappiness into certain present unhappiness by being afraid of it. Do what you can to make a better world, but don't throw away one day or one minute of the world you've got. What I did, as it turned out, was the Type Indicator (Isabel Briggs Myers (1970). Personal letter to Mary McCaulley)

Others

• "We know that Jung once told a colleague that his Dominant function was Introverted Thinking. That means he was either an ISTP or an INTP. Jung was certainly abstract rather than concrete, so it seems safe to hold him up as an example of an INTP." Vol. 2 No. 3 (Winter 1985) of The Type Reporter (page 10)

• Between extraversion and introversion there is also a compensatory relation. Where consciousness is extraverted, the unconscious is introverted and conversely.(The Psychology of C G Jung by Jolande Jacobi : Line 34, Page 19)
• The extravert has an introverted unconscious, though precisely because this side of him remains unconscious, its introversion takes on undifferentiated and compulsive or instinctual form.(The Psychology of C G Jung by Jolande Jacobi : Line 4, Page 20)
• The psyche consists of two complementary but antithetical spheres: consciousness and the unconscious.(The Psychology of C G Jung by Jolande Jacobi : Line 5, Page 5)
• Extraverted sensation + thinking as an auxiliary function. In this type……cooperation with the main function is made easier because of thinking’s similar attitude (extraversion).(Personality by C A Meier : Line 1, Page 32)
• "Carl Gustav Jung (INTP or INTJ) July 26, 1875–June 6, 1961" [1]
• "So I have long believed that personality, like anatomy, comes about not by an integration of elements, but by differentiation within an already integrated whole, emerging gradually as an individuated configuration." David Keirsey, Please Understand Me II, page 31
• "Extraverts look at a situation and ask, 'How do I affect that?'…Introverts tend to ask themselves, 'How does that affect me?'" (Just Your Type by Paul D. Tieger and Barbara Barron-Tieger, page 12)
• "A man's disposition is like a mark in a stone, no one can efface it." ~ Anonymous

Further reading

Wikipedia has an article about:

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Wikipedia has an article about:

Carl Jung

• Carl Jung quotes

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Personality Type and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Introduction

Dimensions

Extraversion vs. Introversion

Sensing vs. Intuition

Thinking vs. Feeling

Judging vs. Perceiving

Temperaments

SJ, "The Traditionalist"

SP, "The Experiencer"

NF, "The Idealist"

NT, "The Conceptualizer"

Types

ISTJ	ISFJ	INFJ	INTJ
ISTP	ISFP	INFP	INTP
ESTP	ESFP	ENFP	ENTP
ESTJ	ESFJ	ENFJ	ENTJ

QuickTyping

At work

Criticisms

Further reading

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