From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.^ (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England (and his wart) Born in 1599 and died in 1658, (September).- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England (Puritan) Born in 1599 and died in 1658, (September).- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England (Olé) Born in 1599 and died in 1658, (September).- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ English Civil Wars 1642-1648 .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When civil war flared up again in 1648 he commanded a large part of the New Model Army which first crushed rebellion in South Wales and then at Preston defeated a Scottish-royalist army of invasion.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ In 1644 Oliver Cromwell was appointed second in command of the New Model Army but it took another four years of bloody civil war before Charles was finally defeated and found himself subjected to an uneasy series of 'house arrests'.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
After the execution of
King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived
Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death from malaria in 1658.
.^ Cromwell:_ You are born into a great story, child.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He ranked near the bottom of the landed elite, the landowning class often labelled 'the gentry' which dominated the social and political life of the county.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell was born into a family which was for a time one of the wealthiest and most influential in the area.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
At times his lifestyle resembled that of a
yeoman farmer until his finances were boosted thanks to an inheritance from his uncle. After undergoing a
religious conversion during the same decade, he made an
Independent style of
Puritanism an essential part of his life.
.^ English Civil Wars 1642-1648 .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In 1640 he was elected MP for Cambridge for the Short Parliament and then again for the Long Parliament but he did not really come to prominence until the First Civil War and beyond when his rise through the military ranks was quite extraordinary.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ A royalist Scots army invaded England but was defeated by Cromwell at Preston and by the end of 1648 the Second Civil War was over and the King was once again in custody.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ Initially a captain in charge of a small body of mounted troops, in 1643 he was promoted to colonel and given command of his own cavalry regiment.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ As the year proceeded, the Resolutioners gained more support and as a result the Scottish army was resupplied with troops.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ In summer 1650, before embarking for Scotland, Cromwell had been appointed lord general - that is, commander in chief - of all the parliamentary forces.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ In Scotland, the English campaign, now led by Monck, continued relentlessly.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ After the trial and execution of the King, Cromwell led major military campaigns to establish English control over Ireland (1649-50) and then Scotland (1650-51), culminating in the defeat of another Scottish-royalist army of invasion at Worcester in September 1651.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with elucidations, George Routledge and Sons, London, (first published 1845), Vol.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ In a nationwide poll conducted by the BBC in 2002, Winston Churchill was voted the Greatest Briton of all time.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
[1] His measures against
Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as
genocidal or near-genocidal,
[2] and in Ireland itself he is widely hated.
[3][4]
Early years: 1599–1640
Ancestry
.^ My thanks to you, Sir, for your valiant attempts to remind your fellow citizens what the US was all about, when it was concieved, and where it has deviated in succeeding years.- Truthdig - President Jonah, Meet Oliver Cromwell! 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.truthdig.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Restoration Again The death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658 was followed two years later by the restoration of the monarchy and by the re-establishment of Episcopacy in both England and Scotland.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with elucidations, George Routledge and Sons, London, (first published 1845), Vol.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England (and his wart) Born in 1599 and died in 1658, (September).- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England (Puritan) Born in 1599 and died in 1658, (September).- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ These are my five Ely houses, and the Huntingdon farmlands.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
He was descended from Catherine Cromwell (born circa 1482), an older sister of
Tudor statesman
Thomas Cromwell.
.^ Cromwell:_ Mr. Lawes makes beautiful music, Oliver.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell Applegate (1845-1938), the son of Lindsay and Elizabeth Applegate (Applegate Trail pioneers), spent his career working with Oregon Indians.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with elucidations, George Routledge and Sons, London, (first published 1845), Vol.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
Note the
Welsh dragon in the Commonwealth coat of arms shown below. The family line continued through Richard Cromwell (c. 1500–1544),
Henry Cromwell (c. 1524–6 January 1604), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell (c.
.^ Oliver Cromwell Applegate (1845-1938), the son of Lindsay and Elizabeth Applegate (Applegate Trail pioneers), spent his career working with Oregon Indians.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Those who advocated voting for Cromwell told us that it was he who made it possible for our freedoms and liberties to be preserved until the present day.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell Applegate was born in Oregon in 1845 to Lindsay and Elizabeth Applegate.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Thomas thus was Oliver's great-great-great-uncle.
[6]
.^ Within a short period of time after the "Act of Classes" was passed, Charles I was executed by Cromwell's Rump Parliament in England.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ He ranked near the bottom of the landed elite, the landowning class often labelled 'the gentry' which dominated the social and political life of the county.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ I notice that he even puts atheists (like his father) into leaning one way or another.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
As a result, Robert's inheritance was limited to a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land.
.^ He ranked near the bottom of the landed elite, the landowning class often labelled 'the gentry' which dominated the social and political life of the county.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
[7] Cromwell himself, much later in 1654, said "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity".
[8]
Youth and education
Records survive of Cromwell's
baptism on 29 April 1599 at St. John's Church,
[9] and his attendance at
Huntingdon Grammar School. He went on to study at
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was then a recently founded college with a strong
puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after the death of his father.
[10] Early biographers claim he then attended
Lincoln's Inn, but there is no record of him in the Inn's archives.
.^ Gordons are gone; the Douglases little better; Eglinton and Glencairn on the point of breaking; many of our chief families states are crashing."- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Antonia Fraser; Cromwell, Our Chief of Men.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
Fraser notes that Cromwell's grandfather, father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn; Cromwell also sent his son Richard there in 1647. His possible association with Lincoln's Inn would also explain in part how he met his wife-to-be, who was based in London, and whom he married in 1620.
[11].^ Cromwell's inheritances from his father, who died in 1617, and later from a maternal uncle were not great, his income was modest and he had to support an expanding family - widowed mother, wife and eight children.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
[12]
Marriage and family
.^ Spoken: He died in 1658 when his son Richard took over, but Richard wasn't as good as :- Oliver!- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ The Scottish Parliament acted immediately to proclaim Charles' son as lawful successor to his father's throne.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of Great Britain and Ireland, 1932.- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
[14]
.^ Lord Wariston was hunted and later executed, and Samuel Rutherford and James Guthrie were tried and condemned.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
& d. 1632), died in infancy.
Mary (1637-1713), married Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg.
Frances (1638-1720), married (1) Robert Rich, (2) Sir John Russell, 3rd Baronet.
.^ This was a kind of union, at least to English eyes; Sir Edwin Sandys, who had wrecked James VI's scheme in the English parliamentary session of 1606-7 in favour of his own notion of a 'perfect union', might well have approved it.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ Upon his return to London, Cromwell purged the House of Commons of all Presbyterian members and kept it under guard by threat of arms.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Second, the Engagement brought the Scots into war again, this time on the king's side against Cromwell; but, in 1648, Cromwell sorely defeated the Engagement Army at Preston.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ Only don't you and John come putting more notions into Oliver's head.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell's military standing gave him enhanced political power, just as his military victories gave him the confidence and motivation to intervene in and to shape political events.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
Crisis and recovery
At this stage, though, there is little evidence of Cromwell's own religion. His letter in 1626 to Henry Downhall, an
Arminian minister, suggests that Cromwell had yet to be influenced by radical puritanism.
[15] However, there is evidence that Cromwell went through a period of personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. He sought treatment for
valde melancolicus (
depression) from London doctor
Theodore de Mayerne in 1628. He was also caught up in a fight among the gentry of Huntingdon over a new charter for the town, as a result of which he was called before the
Privy Council in 1630.
[16].^ He made a living by farming and collecting rents, first in his native Huntingdon, then from 1631 in St Ives and from 1636 in Ely.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
This was a major step down in society compared to his previous position, and seems to have had a significant emotional and spiritual impact.
.^ Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations .- MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC digilib.gmu.edu:8080 [Source type: Academic]
^ Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with elucidations, George Routledge and Sons, London, (first published 1845), Vol.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations .- MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC digilib.gmu.edu:8080 [Source type: Academic]
.^ And may the mercy of God be upon England.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Ireton:_ How far has this gone?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Those few held firmly at Edgehill, keeping us as far from defeat as we were, though that was little enough.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Oliver Cromwell's house in
Ely
.^ Cromwell's inheritances from his father, who died in 1617, and later from a maternal uncle were not great, his income was modest and he had to support an expanding family - widowed mother, wife and eight children.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ In the 1630s Charles 1's various taxes had cost Scotland about £17,000 sterling per annum.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
^ At the end of the year he was appointed second in command of the Eastern Association army, parliament's largest and most effective regional army, with the rank of lieutenant-general.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
He had become a committed puritan and had also established important family links to leading families in London and
Essex.
Member of Parliament: 1628–1629 and 1640–1642
.^ Educated at Huntingdon grammar school , now the Cromwell Museum, and at Cambridge University, he became a minor East Anglian landowner.- Oliver Cromwell and his supporters 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the
Arminian Bishop
Richard Neile), which was poorly received.
[18] After dissolving this Parliament,
Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next eleven years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the
Bishops' Wars, shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for
Cambridge, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the
Short Parliament. Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640.
[19]
A second Parliament was called later the same year. This was to become known as the
Long Parliament. Cromwell was again returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge.
.^ Would like staff position if hostilities should break out.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 28 January 2010 0:36 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Otherwise it is unlikely that a relatively unknown member would have been given this task.
.^ Two fellows were there from the Earl of Bedford.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ (There is a sound of argument outside, and BRIDGET CROMWELL, persuading an officer of the House to let her enter, comes in with AMOS TANNER. They are both from a long journey.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[20] At this stage, the group had an agenda of godly reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, it was Cromwell who put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill, and who later took a role in drafting the
Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of
episcopacy.
[21]Military commander: 1642–1646
English Civil War begins
.^ English Civil Wars 1642-1648 .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
^ English Civil War .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
Before joining Parliament's forces, Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. Now 43 years old, he recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of
silver plate from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the king. Cromwell and his troop then fought at the indecisive
Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642 and 1643, making up part of the
Eastern Association under the
Earl of Manchester. Cromwell gained experience and victories in a number of successful actions in
East Anglia in 1643, notably at the
Battle of Gainsborough on 28 July.
[22] After this he was made governor of Ely and made a
colonel in the Eastern Association.
Marston Moor
By the time of the
Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of
Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist horse and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory.
.^ CROMWELL, himself battered and with a slight head wound, stands by the couch._ _Cromwell:_ It is not mortal.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[23] After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor he wrote a famous letter to his
brother-in-law. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance.
The indecisive outcome of the
Second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644, the war still showed no signs of ending.
.^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell:_ I can disabuse rumour about Scotland, I can persuade Parliament about the Presbytery, I can convince the army of your good faith as to tolerance, if you will but give me the word.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Oliver, boy, you were quite right--all that you said to those men, I mean.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Say that you and your like are reviled by all honest men.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell:_ You do not know, sir?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ But you know I'm right in this, mother.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ I call you to witness.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[25] Cromwell's differences with the Scots, at that time allies of the Parliament, would later develop into outright enmity in 1648 and in 1650-51.
New Model Army
.^ And all to satisfy the pride of a few useless members that his self-denying ordinance keeps out of command.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
All of them — except for Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions and was allowed to remain in parliament — chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodeled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations; Cromwell contributed significantly to these military reforms.
.^ The Scout:_ General Cromwell is riding into the field with his Ironsides, sir, some six hundred strong.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Then the cavalry--you have one wing, Ireton, or you must command all, since General Cromwell is not come.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Fairfax:_ Since we lack General Cromwell, more depends on you, Ireton, than on any man, perhaps.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
By this time, the Parliamentarians' field army outnumbered the King's by roughly two to one.
Battle of Naseby
At the critical
Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model smashed the King's major army.
.^ Then the cavalry--you have one wing, Ireton, or you must command all, since General Cromwell is not come.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
At the
Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England.
.^ Cromwell:_ And that's three of you in one house.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ There's a man's house.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[26] Cromwell also took part in successful sieges at
Bridgwater,
Sherborne,
Bristol,
Devizes, and
Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in
Devon and
Cornwall.
.^ English Civil Wars 1642-1648 .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
^ English Civil War .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at
Oxford in June.
Cromwell's military style
Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his
cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward. This method relied on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were in an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and in his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry.
[27]Cromwell also practiced tight cavalry mobile battle formations (hence the name "Ironsides"); this was an innovation in England at the time, and was a major factor in his success.
.^ They follow the coming argument with close personal concern.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
This facilitated further engagements in short order, which allowed greater intensity and quick reaction to battle developments. This style of command was decisive at both Marston Moor and Naseby.
[28]Politics: 1647–1649
In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time of his recovery, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a
Presbyterian settlement of the Church.
.^ Cromwell:_ Daughter, we must be loving, one with another.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. During May 1647, Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in
Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet
George Joyce seized the king from Parliament's imprisonment. Although Cromwell is known to have met with Joyce on 31 May, it is impossible to be sure what Cromwell's role in this event was.
[29].^ Cromwell:_ Now, Henry Ireton, these gentlemen may be bears, but I won't have you make this room into a bear-pit.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Will you give me my shawl, Henry Ireton.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[30] .^ To be led by such a one.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ THE SCENE CLOSES SCENE IV _After dawn on July 14, 1645, the day of Naseby._ _GENERAL FAIRFAX, with IRETON--now colonel--and two other officers, is holding a council of war in his tent.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ To which end I am now coming home, to call out all such men as have the love of England in their hearts, and fear God.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The
Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution.
[31] .^ A room in Hampton Court, where CHARLES THE FIRST, now a prisoner with the army, is lodged._ _At a table, writing, is NEAL, the King's secretary.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Second Civil War
The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king eventually led to the outbreak of the
Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms.
.^ Will start back about first of next week, and may bring Jesse A. with him.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 28 January 2010 0:36 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The castle at
Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at
Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks.
.^ Cromwell:_ Whoever heard that heard history being made, John.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[32]Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the
Engagers) who had invaded England. At
Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice that size.
[33].^ Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations .- MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC digilib.gmu.edu:8080 [Source type: Academic]
^ MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations .- MARS: Oliver Cromwell’s letters and speeches : with elucidations 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC digilib.gmu.edu:8080 [Source type: Academic]
.^ Thanks Oliver for letter, and congratulates him on joining militia company.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 28 January 2010 0:36 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Cromwell:_ Brethren in God, at the end of another day's labour we are met to praise Him from whom are the means to labour and its rewards.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ I can disabuse rumour about Scotland, I can persuade Parliament about the Presbytery, I can convince the army of your good faith as to tolerance, if you will but give me the word.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The King should have his authority, but it is an authority subject to the laws of the people.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument.
[34] .^ Cromwell:_ Brethren in God, at the end of another day's labour we are met to praise Him from whom are the means to labour and its rewards.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell:_ Brethren in God, at the end of another day's labour we are met to praise Him from whom are the means to labour and its rewards.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Outside in the night the Puritan troops are heard singing the One Hundred and Seventeenth Psalm: "O praise the Lord, all ye nations: praise him, all ye people.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ These rights of pasture belong to the people.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
King tried and executed
The trial of Charles I on January 4, 1649.
In December 1648, those MPs who wished to continue negotiations with the king were prevented from sitting by a troop of soldiers headed by
Colonel Thomas Pride, an episode soon to be known as
Pride's Purge. Thus gerrymandered, the remaining body of MPs, known as the
Rump, agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason.
.^ Places > Europe > England > North Yorkshire .- http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=2370220&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=2370220 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC www.heritage-images.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The morning of January 30, 1649, the day of the King's execution._ _Outside the window can be seen the grey winter gloom, brightened by fallen snow.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
He believed that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars. The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (who was the third to sign it); Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign. Charles was executed on 30 January 1649.
Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649
Commonwealth Coat of Arms. 1649 - 1660
After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the
Commonwealth of England. The Rump Parliament exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller
Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of 'Royal Independents' centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in
Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish
Confederate Catholics. In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. After quelling
Leveller mutinies within the English army at
Andover and
Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from
Bristol at the end of July.
Irish campaign: 1649–1650
Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the
Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance, and Protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous".
[35]Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the
Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe.
[36] Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the
Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by
Irish and
Old English, and
Gallowglass Scot Catholics in Ireland (these settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants). These factors contributed to Cromwell's harshness in his military campaign in Ireland.
[37]Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in
Dublin and
Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the
battle of Rathmines), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of
Drogheda and
Wexford to secure logistical supply from England.
.^ I would have you send a summons to all the people of this town and countryside.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Oliver, boy, you were quite right--all that you said to those men, I mean.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ That is an aim of mine--to find all men of worth and learning and genius--to give them due employment.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[38] Cromwell wrote afterwards that:
.^ Teach those who look too much upon Thy instrument to depend more upon Thyself.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[39]
At the
Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances.
.^ The Scout:_ General Cromwell is riding into the field with his Ironsides, sir, some six hundred strong.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[40] The size of this force must have been substantial in order to defeat 2000 troops, which casts doubt on the claim of sincere negotiation on behalf of Cromwell. It is notable that no disciplinary actions were taken against his forces subsequent to this second massacre.
After the massacre of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to
Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to
besiege Waterford,
Kilkenny and
Clonmel in Ireland's south-east.
.^ And I know there are many other honest men of this same resolution.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Fairfax_ (taking his seat, CROMWELL and the others also at the table): The battle is set.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ (He takes a drawing from the drawer in front of him and places it before Cromwell, on the case of papers.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[41] One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of
Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in
Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament
[42] At this point, word reached Cromwell that
Charles II had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the
Covenanter regime.
.^ Cromwell:_ May England prosper by you.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[43]The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure.
.^ Cromwell:_ Will you give me my shawl, Henry Ireton.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Now, Henry Ireton, these gentlemen may be bears, but I won't have you make this room into a bear-pit.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The last Catholic held town,
Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops capitulated in April of the following year.
[41]In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest, the public practice of Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were murdered when captured. In addition, roughly 12,000 Irish people were sold into slavery under the Commonwealth.
[44] All Catholic-owned land was confiscated in the
Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, the Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of
Connacht - this led to the Cromwellian attributed phrase "To hell or to Connacht". Under the Commonwealth, Catholic landownership dropped from 60% of the total to just 8%.
Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland
The extent of Cromwell's brutality
[45][46] in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly, but only against those "in arms".
[47] Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27th September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants".
[48] In September 1649, he justified his sack of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in
Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood."
[38] However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children for
indentured labour[49] to
Bermuda and
Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England.
[50] .^ Let a man think as he will, but he shall command no other man to think it.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Why else have you appointed my Lord of Essex from Parliament to take command of the armed forces of this country?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Several English soldiers were hanged for disobeying these orders.
[51].^ (Again there is tumult, during which the SPEAKER leaves his chair and the House; and the session breaks up, the members leaving in passionate discussion.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Quotes from Seward’s conversation, relating politics being ended during the war.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ But I think the issue was there decided, some few of us there learning what must now be done.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell:_ And that's three of you in one house.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ (The House divides, the Yeas, including CROMWELL, HAMPDEN, and IRETON, leaving the House, the Noes remaining seated.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties. However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller.
[53] Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives."
[54] Cromwell's orders — "in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town" — followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to
quarter.
[55] The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre.
[56] Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople.
[57] At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting.
[58] Amateur
[59] Irish historian (and Drogheda native)
Tom Reilly has taken this argument further, claiming that the accepted versions of the campaigns in Drogheda and Wexford in which wholesale killings of civilians on Cromwell's orders took place "were a 19th century fiction".
[51] However, Reilly's conclusions have been rejected by other scholars.
[60][61][62]
Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and
John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of
ethnic cleansing in Ireland.
[63] By the end of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement there had been extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population.
[64]The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day.
James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel
Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the
bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly,
Winston Churchill described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations:
...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds.
.^ Cromwell:_ It's nearly a year since they made you Protector, then.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ And that's three of you in one house.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They both shake hands with MRS. CROMWELL.) _Hampden:_ How do you do, ma'am?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'."
[65]
Cromwell is still a figure of hatred in Ireland, his name being associated with massacre, religious persecution, and mass dispossession of the Catholic community there. As Churchill notes, a traditional Irish curse was malacht Cromail ort or "the curse of Cromwell upon you".
The key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his
Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650.
[66] In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass."
[67] However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same."
[67] Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do."
[68] .^ Cromwell:_ There's to be no yielding about that.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ There is a boy, Seth Tanner, we have a care for.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Now, Henry Ireton, these gentlemen may be bears, but I won't have you make this room into a bear-pit.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Scottish campaign: 1650–1651
Scots proclaim Charles as King
Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later, invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son as
Charles II. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish
Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people fearing His [God's] name, though deceived".
[69] He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."
[70] The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary.
[71]Battle of Dunbar
His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under
David Leslie. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from
Dunbar. However, on 3 September 1650, in an unexpected battle, Cromwell smashed the main Covenanter army at the
Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner and then capturing the Scottish capital of
Edinburgh.
[72] The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it, "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people".
[72]Battle of Worcester
The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at
Worcester on 3 September 1651. At the subsequent
Battle of Worcester, Cromwell's forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army.
.^ He became subagent at Yainax in 1871, where he remained until the outbreak of the Modoc War.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 28 January 2010 0:36 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Scottish campaign concluded
In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men, under
George Monck, sacked the town of
Dundee, killing up to 2,000 of its population of 12,000 and destroying the 60 ships in the city's harbour.
[74] During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England, and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the
Highlands, which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland, from the rest of the country.
.^ Tell him to keep three troops of horse four miles down the Leicester road there.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[75] Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the
Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously.
[76]Cromwell's conquest, unwelcome as it was, left no significant lasting legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was, the Highlands aside, largely peaceful. Moreover, there was no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four
Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State.
[77] Although not often favourably regarded, Cromwell's name rarely meets the hatred in Scotland that it does in Ireland.
Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–1653
From the middle of 1649 until 1651, Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government.
[78] Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force.
.^ Says no school at present, the school master having moved to Eugene, but that Gallaher is setting up a school house between Jim and Putnam’s.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[80] .^ General Cromwell and his chosen troops have that, and experience; none like them.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Then the cavalry--you have one wing, Ireton, or you must command all, since General Cromwell is not come.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653
After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of
Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "
sanhedrin" of
saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's
apocalyptic,
Fifth Monarchist beliefs – which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for
Christ's rule on earth – he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials.
.^ Cromwell:_ Thank you, Seth.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ No, thank you.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ I call you to witness.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[81] Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the
Barebone's Parliament after one of its members,
Praise-God Barbon. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined).
.^ Says the State Republican has been “sold out.” Says Bush’s course is condemned by all except Stratton, who fears Bush more than God.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Reports baby Ann better, and believes they might come down before threshing is done.- Guide to the Oliver Cromwell Applegate Papers 1841-1938 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[82]The Protectorate: 1653–1658
Royal styles of
Oliver Cromwell
Lord Protector of the Commonwealth |
|
|
|
| Reference style |
His Highness |
| Spoken style |
Your Highness |
| Alternative style |
Sir |
.^ If we assert ourselves as in this instrument, we but put the King in the way of just government.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Only don't you and John come putting more notions into Oliver's head.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Cromwell:_ It's nearly a year since they made you Protector, then.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.
[83] .^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year.
[85]
Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take.
[86] .^ Cromwell:_ Surely you are not well advised to turn off one so faithful to the cause, and so able to serve you as this man is.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Parliament and the army are at one in asking for constitutional safeguards.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Such forms were, he said, "but... dross and dung in comparison of Christ".
[87] The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!",
[88] Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the
judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the
First Anglo-Dutch War.
Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the
first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting".
[89] However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms.
.^ Cromwell:_ Parliament and the army are at one in asking for constitutional safeguards.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655.
Cromwell's signature before becoming Lord Protector in 1653, and afterwards. 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector, echoes the similar style in which English monarchs had signed their names: for example, 'Elizabeth R' standing for
Elizabeth Regina.
Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inly godliness throughout England.
[90] During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the
Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament.
.^ Cromwell:_ Is the army well rested, sir?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Scout:_ General Cromwell is riding into the field with his Ironsides, sir, some six hundred strong.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Sir, this is a day when every man must speak the truth that is in him, or be silent in shame, and for ever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to
national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals.
.^ Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will remain freely available for generations to come.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority.
.^ In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.
[91]
Half-Crown coin of Oliver Cromwell, 1658. The Latin inscription reads: OLIVAR.D.G.RP.ANG. - SCO.ET.HIB&cPRO (OLIVARIUS DEI GRATIA REIPUBLICAE ANGLIAE SCOTIAE ET HIBERNIAE ET CETERORUM PROTECTOR), meaning "Oliver, by the Grace of God Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and other (territories)".
As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the
Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival.
.^ Intrigues with Scotland--there are none, we are assured, but if there were it would almost inevitably bring civil war again.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Oliver, boy, you were quite right--all that you said to those men, I mean.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[92]In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma, since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build
Jericho again”.
[93] The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of
Hispaniola in the
West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to
Achan, who had brought the
Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho.
[94] .^ MRS. CROMWELL'S bedroom in Whitehall, where CROMWELL is now installed as Protector._ _MRS. CROMWELL, now aged ninety-four, is on her death-bed.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The event in part echoed a
coronation, utilising many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb).
.^ MRS. CROMWELL'S bedroom in Whitehall, where CROMWELL is now installed as Protector._ _MRS. CROMWELL, now aged ninety-four, is on her death-bed.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the
Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the
Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice—Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and
Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman.
Death and posthumous execution
Cromwell is thought to have suffered from
malaria (probably first contracted while on campaign in Ireland) and from "
stone", a common term for
urinary/
kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. A
Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death. The decline may also have been hastened by the death of his favourite daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, in August. He died aged 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at
Dunbar and
Worcester.
[95] The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was
septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at
Westminster Abbey, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.
[96]He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although Richard was not entirely without ability, he had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate.
.^ Cromwell:_ There could be no safety or hope while he lived.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Under Monck's watchful eye the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that in 1660
Charles II could be invited back from exile to be king under a
restored monarchy.
In 1661, Oliver Cromwell's body was
exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a
posthumous execution, as were the remains of
John Bradshaw and
Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.)
.^ The morning of January 30, 1649, the day of the King's execution._ _Outside the window can be seen the grey winter gloom, brightened by fallen snow.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
His body was hanged in chains at
Tyburn.
.^ The King,--not the head of the state, mark you, expressing the people's will in one authority,--but this man Charles Rex, may use all these as he will.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Now, Henry Ireton, these gentlemen may be bears, but I won't have you make this room into a bear-pit.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[97] Afterwards the head changed hands several times, including the sale in 1814 to a man named Josiah Henry Wilkinson,
[98][99] before eventually being buried in the grounds of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960.
[100][101]Political reputation
During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power—for example,
The Machiavilian Cromwell and
The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the
Levellers after 1647, present him as a
Machiavellian figure.
[102] More positive contemporary assessments—for instance, John Spittlehouse in
A Warning Piece Discharged — typically compared him to
Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the
Red Sea of the civil wars.
[103] Several biographies were published soon after his death.
.^ Cromwell:_ Men will pity him.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Fairfax:_ Since we lack General Cromwell, more depends on you, Ireton, than on any man, perhaps.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ You can't pretend he'll make him more temperate.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[104] An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his
History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England.
.^ Sir, this country, the spirit of man in this country, has suffered grievances too great to be borne.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the
Restoration of the monarchy.
[105]During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the
Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of
Edmund Ludlow’s
Memoirs, re-written by
John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a
Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a
despot who crushed the beginnings of
democratic rule in the 1640s.
[106]During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by
Romantic artists and poets.
Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole.
By the late nineteenth century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into
Whig and
Liberal historiography.
.^ Fairfax:_ Since we lack General Cromwell, more depends on you, Ireton, than on any man, perhaps.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
[108] Cromwell’s
foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of
Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.
[109]During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of
fascism in
Germany and
Italy.
Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example—a
Harvard historian—devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as
John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.
[110] Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the
Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary
military dictators.
Late twentieth century historians have re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his
authoritarian regime.
Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.
[111]Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.
[112]Monuments
- In Westminster Abbey the site of Cromwell’s burial was marked, during the 19th century, by a floor stone, laid in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading “THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658–1661”[113]
- In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband.[114] It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open anywhere in England and was a realistic likeness, based on the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with the local Conservatives and with the large Irish immigrant population alike. When Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the Town Hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was more appropriately relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell and his troops.[115]
- During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament caused considerable controversy. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party[116] forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project and eventually it was funded privately by Lord Rosebery.[117] In 2008 the statue was restored to mark the 350th anniversary of Cromwell’s death.[118]
- A statue of Cromwell also stands outside The Academy in Bridge Street, Warrington,[119] an historic building which is now home to the Warrington Guardian newspaper. .
- As First Lord of the Admiralty before the First World War, Winston Churchill suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell.^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ First Agent:_ Is this Mr. Oliver Cromwell's?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The suggestion did not meet with royal approval.[120]
- In 1940 “Cromwell” was the codeword warning that German invasion of Britain was imminent.
In popular culture
- Cromwell’s adoption by the French Romantic movement was typified by Victor Hugo’s 1827 play Cromwell, often considered to be symbolic of the French romantic movement, which represents Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. .
- 1970 saw the release of the Ken Hughes film Cromwell starring Richard Harris in the leading role.^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
To Kill a King, a film of 2003 focussed on the relationship between Dougray Scott as Fairfax and Tim Roth as Cromwell, with Rupert Everett as King Charles I. .
- Cromwell has also appeared in popular song, such as:
- Oliver Cromwell, played by Dominic West, is one of the main characters in the 2008 Channel 4 TV miniseries The Devil's Whore.
- Popular Australian fantasy author Kate Forsyth's made Oliver Cromwell in her series The Chain of Charms.
- Protagonist “Alucard” of the Japanese manga, Hellsing, refers to his power limitation system as the Cromwell Authorization System.
- In the The Adventures of Luther Arkwright, a comic book fantasy adventure spanning countless alternative universes, modern day England is a fascist theocracy ruled by a descendant of Cromwell.
- Orson Scott Card’s alternate historical fantasy novel series The Tales of Alvin Maker diverges from reality in that folk magic actually works, and because (unknown to him — he would’ve executed them for witchcraft had he known) at least one of his physicians had a healing “knack,” Cromwell did not die so young, so the English Restoration never happened, causing drastic alterations in the 19th Century North American setting of the series (e.g. there were four separate nations in the area occupied by the real United States of the time, only one of which had that name).^ Cromwell:_ Take him to our lodging, daughter.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ What time is John coming?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Did you set it down?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Cromwell himself does not appear in the series.
- “Cromwell Road” remains a popular street name in many British towns and cities, and towns in New Zealand and the United States have been named “Cromwell.”
- ^ "Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2341661.stm. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ genocidal or near-genocidal:
- Breton Albert (ed). 1995, Nationalism and Rationality, Cambridge University Press, Chapter Regulating nations and ethnic communities by Brendam O'Leary and John McGarry p 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'"
- Coogan Tim-Pat, . 2002. The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. ISBN 978-0312294182. Page 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide."
- Ellis, Peter Berresford. 2002. Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Page 108. ISBN 978-0471266334. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."
- Levene Mark, 2005, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London: "Considered overall, an Irish population collapse from 1.5 or possibly over 2 million inhabitants at the onset of the Irish wars in 1641, to no more than 850,000 eleven years later represents an absolutely devastating demographic catastrophe. Undoubted the largest proportion of this massive death toll did not arise from direct massacre but from hunger and then bubonic plagues, especially from the outbreak between 1649 and 1652. Even so, the relationship to the worst years of the fighting is all too apparent.
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state. For instance, though the Act begins rather ominously by claiming that it was not its intention to extirpate the whole Irish nation, it then goes on to list five categories of people who, as participators in or alleged supporters of the 1641 rebellion and its aftermath, would automatically be forfeit of their lives. It has been suggested that as many as 100,000 people would have been liable under these headings. A further five categories - by implication an even larger body of 'passive' supporters of the rebellion - were to be spared their lives but not their property."
- Levene, Mark. 2005. Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population". ISBN 978-1845110574
- Levene, Mark and Roberts Penny. 1999, The Massacre in History, Berghahn Books: Oxford: "Further evidence for a massacre-ridden civil war in Ireland appears to come from population figures. Though military and civilian deaths from civil war were not light in England or in Scotland, in neither country did war inflict a clear drop in population level. It was otherwise in Ireland. Up to 1641 the population had risen steadily: one million in 1500, 1.4 in 1600, 2.1 in 1641; but then there occurred a sharp fall so that numbers stood at 1.7 million by 1672. After this, renewed growth took the population to 2.2 million in 1687, and 2.8 in 1712. By far the greater part of this massive decline - some four hundred thousand people or 19% of the 1641 population - took place in the 1640s and 1650, and was the direct or indirect result of over a decade of warfare. Ireland's civil war death toll is comparable to the devastation suffered during the Second World War by countries such as the Soviet Union, Poland, or Yugoslavia, and suggests that the war-time massacres which so contributed to these horrific modern figures, also occurred in mid-seventeenth-century Ireland."
- Lutz,James M and Lutz Brenda J, 2004. Global Terrorism, Routledge, London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
- O'Leary, Brendan, Callaghy Thomas M., Ian S. Lustick, 2001, Right-Sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders, Oxford University Press: "Ethnic expulsion is a right-peopling strategy, the intended, direct or indirect, forcible movement by state officials, or sanctioned paramilitaries, of the whole or part of a community from its current homeland, usually beyond the sovereign borders of the state. A population can also be forcibly 'repatriated', or pushed back towards its alleged 'homeland', as happened to blacks during the high tide of apartheid in South Africa. We may distinguish two paradigm forms: creating 'Serbian exiles', that is coerced transfers within a state or empire, and 'creating refugees', that is, the expulsion of populations beyond the sovereign border. Examples of the former include the treatment of indigenous peoples throughout the world; the Irish Catholics moved by Oliver Cromwell to Connaught during 1649-50 and after; and national minorities within the Soviet Union."
- Stewart, Frances. War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1, (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
- Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland, International Institute of Social History Website (Based in the Netherlands), "Roman Catholic Irish were subdued to ethnic cleansing policy by Oliver Cromwell. After his suppression of a rebellion against the English in 1649 he ordered that the Irish were allowed to live west of the Shannon river only. During guerrilla warfare that followed thousands of Irish died or were sold as slaves to America. Cromwell had promised Irish land to the business investors and soldiers who had helped him perform his expeditions. The 'Act for the Attainder of the Rebels in Ireland' of 17 September 1656 is part of this programme. The land of rebels is attained and 'rebels' are defined in such a way that all Catholics match. By the end of 1656 four fifths of the Irish land was in Protestant hands."
- ^ "Of all these doings in Cromwell's Irish Chapter, each of us may say what he will. Yet to everyone it will at least be intelligible how his name came to be hated in the tenacious heart of Ireland". John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell. Page 298. 1900 and 2001. ISBN 978-1421267074.; "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." [1] British National Archives web site. Accessed March 2007; [2] From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Accessed March 2007. Site currently offline. WayBack Machine holds archive here [3]
- ^ ; From the Channel 4 History site: [4] "Cromwell's name has always been execrated by Irish Catholics for the massacre at Drogheda. He is also hated for the transplanting of Protestant settlers to Ireland, a policy established in the reign of Elizabeth I." Accessed March 2007.
- ^ David Plant. "Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658". British-civil-wars.co.uk. http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ "Cromwell". Tudorplace.com.ar. http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/CROMWELL.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ Gaunt, p.31.
- ^ Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, quoted in Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman's Classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, p.42.
- ^ British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638-1660
- ^ Cromwell, Oliver in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 24.
- ^ Morrill, John (1990). .^ Cromwell:_ Mr. Lawes makes beautiful music, Oliver.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.24.
- ^ British Civil Wars, Commonwealthand Proctectorate 1638-1660
- ^ Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9, p.4; Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell (Blackwell), ISBN 0-631-18356-6, p.23.
- ^ a b Morrill, p.34.
- ^ Morrill, pp.24–33.
- ^ Gaunt, p.34.
- ^ Morrill, pp.25-26.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1973
- ^ Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p.57.
- ^ Adamson, p.53.
- ^ David Plant. "1643: Civil War in Lincolnshire". British-civil-wars.co.uk. http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1643-lincolnshire.htm#gainsborough. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, pp. 120-129.
- ^ Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations, vol I, p.154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), ISBN 1840222220, p.107.
- ^ "Sermons of Rev Martin Camoux: Oliver Cromwell". http://trinitychurchsutton.org.uk/Sermons/Sermon_999.htm.
- ^ Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 (Oxford University Press), ISBN 0-19-280278-X, p.141
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as a soldier, in Morrill, pp.117–118.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0297765566, pp. 154-161
- ^ Coward, pp.188-95.
- ^ Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3, ch.2–5.
- ^ "Spartacus: Rowland Laugharne at www.Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk". http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/STUlaugharneJ.htm.
- ^ Gardiner, pp.144–47; Gaunt (1997) 94-97.
- ^ Adamson, pp.76–84.
- ^ Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (Cork University Press), ISBN 1-85918-244-5, p.115.
- ^ Fraser, pp.74-76.
- ^ Fraser, pp.326-328.
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.98.
- ^ Cromwell, Oliver (1846). Thomas Carlyle. ed. Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. William H. Colyer. pp. 128. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SvQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128&dq=%22I+am+persuaded+that+this+is+a+righteous+judgment+of+God+upon+these+barbarous+wretches%22&cd=5#v=onepage&q=%22I%20am%20persuaded%20that%20this%20is%20a%20righteous%20judgment%20of%20God%20upon%20these%20barbarous%20wretches%22&f=false. Retrieved 22/01/10.
- ^ Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9 pp.344-46.
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.100.
- ^ Fraser, pp.321-322; Lenihan, p.113.
- ^ Fraser, p.355.
- ^ Kenyon, Ohlmeyer, p.314.
- ^ Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Penguin Books: London, p.108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..."
- ^ Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p.74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..."
- ^ Philip McKeiver, 2007, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
- ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, p. 83, 90
- ^ O'Callaghan, Sean (2000). To Hell or Barbados. Brandon. ISBN 0863222870.
- ^ Lenihan, p.1O22; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs".
- ^ a b Reilly, Tom, Cromwell - An Honourable Enemy: The Untold Story of the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland (2000).
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare".
- ^ J.C. Davis, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 108-110.
- ^ Abbott, Writings and Speeches, vol II, p.124.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, p. 111; Gaunt, p. 117.
- ^ Lenihan, p.168.
- ^ Gaunt, p.116.
- ^ Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, p.151.
- ^ [5] "From the Author"..."The reaction - among the under forties on the whole - was good, but among historians and the over forties it was bad. They can't seem to accept that an amateur could discover such a fundamental flaw in Irish history, i.e. that neither Cromwell or his men ever engaged in the killing of any unarmed civilians throughout his entire nine month campaign."
- ^ John Morrill. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences." Canadian Journal of History. December 2003: 19.
- ^ "Eugene Coyle. Review of Cromwell - An Honourable Enemy. History Ireland". http://web.archive.org/web/20010221184835/http://www.historyireland.com/resources/reviews/review1.html.
- ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, p. 83-93
- ^ Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing:
- Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"
- Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.."
- David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627-1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing."
- Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"
- John Morrill (2003). Rewriting Cromwell - A Case of Deafening Silences, Canadian Journal of History. December 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell.
Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by O.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that "it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it."
- James M Lutz, Brenda J Lutz, (2004). Global Terrorism, Routledge:London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
- Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1845110574 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
- Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London:
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.
- ^ Frances Stewart (2000). War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1 (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
- ^ Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of Revolution, Dodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you." The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distracted English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people through-out the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.
- ^ Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Harvard University Press, pp.196-205.
- ^ a b Abbott, p.202.
- ^ Abbott, p.205.
- ^ Lenihan, p.115.
- ^ Gardiner, p.194.
- ^ Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.155.
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.66.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0297765566, pp. 385-389.
- ^ [6]
- ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.306.
- ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2003). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe, p.281.
- ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.320.
- ^ Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-29213-1, ch.16-17.
- ^ Abbott, p.643
- ^ Abbott, p.642-643.
- ^ Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, pp.8-27.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822659-4, ch.5-10.
- ^ Gaunt, p.155.
- ^ Gaunt, p.156.
- ^ A History of Britain - The Stuarts. Ladybird. 1991. ISBN 0-7214-3370-7.
- ^ Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, p.172.
- ^ Quoted in Hirst, p.127.
- ^ "Cromwell, At the Opening of Parliament Under the Protectorate (1654)". Strecorsoc.org. http://www.strecorsoc.org/docs/cromwell.html. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ Roots, pp.41-56.
- ^ Hirst, p.173.
- ^ Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 .
- ^ Hirst, p.137.
- ^ Roots, p.128.
- ^ Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8, pp.141–145.
- ^ Gaunt, p.204.
- ^ "Cambridge County Council website". http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/leisure/museums/cromwell/online/.
- ^ Westminster Abbey site news
- ^ Staff. "Roundhead on the Pike", Time magazine, 6 May, 1957
- ^ By Terri Schlichenmeyer. "Missing body parts of famous people". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2007/LIVING/wayoflife/08/21/mf.missing.famous/index.html?imw=Y&iref=mpstoryemail. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
- ^ Gaunt, p.4.
- ^ Cromwell's head, the Cromwell Museum, Cambridgeshire County Council
- ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp.263–4.
- ^ Morrill, pp.271–2.
- ^ Morrill, pp.279–281.
- ^ a b Gaunt, p.9.
- ^ Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), ISBN 0141006943, pp.53–59
- ^ Gardiner, p.315.
- ^ Worden, pp.256–260.
- ^ Gardiner, p.318.
- ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in Historical Journal, 33, 3, pp.629-639.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648.
- ^ Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) [7]; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman).
- ^ "Westminster Abbey site: Oliver Cromwell". http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/oliver-cromwell.
- ^ "Francis Frith Manchester: selected extracts". http://www.francisfrith.com/pageloader.asp?page=/shop/books/bookcontent.asp&isbn=1-85937-266-X&start=61.
- ^ "Papillon Graphics' Virtual Encyclopaedia of Greater Manchester". http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/history/history2.html.
- ^ "Extract from Hansard". http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1899/apr/25/statue-of-oliver-cromwell.
- ^ "icons.org: The Cromwell Statue at Westminster". http://www.icons.org.uk/nom/nominations/cromwell.
- ^ "Cromwell conservation work - www.parliament.uk". http://www.parliament.uk/about/visiting/exhibitions/cromwell_conservation.cfm.
- ^ http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/60029
- ^ Kenneth Rose, King George V, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984, p. 160f.
- ^ http://www.pogues.com/Releases/Lyrics/LPs/PeaceAndLove/YoungNed.html
References
- Adamson, John (1990). .^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
), .
- Adamson, John (1987).^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ This house is ready for any kind of revolution, John.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
"The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3.
- BBC Radio 4 - This Sceptred Isle - The Execution of Charles I. "Sorrell accuses Murdoch of panic buying", BBC Radio 4. Accessed 4 November 2007.
- Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations [8]PDF (40.2 MB);
- Coward, Barry (2003). The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Longman, ISBN 0582772516
- Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals, in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1417949619
- Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0631183566
- Hirst, Derek (1990). The Lord Protector, 1653-8, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 019280278X
- Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
- Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War Cork University Press, ISBN 1859182445
- Morrill, John (1990). '"Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Morrill, John (1990). .^ Cromwell:_ Mr. Lawes makes beautiful music, Oliver.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- O'Siochru, Micheal (2008). God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, Faber and Faber, ISBN 9780571-241217
- Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541
- Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198226594
- Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier" in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0198227523
- Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0521021898
- Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0141006943
- Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521292131
- Worden, Blair (2000). .
- Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000).^ Cromwell:_ Now, young man, Oliver doesn't need any urging to it.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The English Civil War Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220
Biographies
- Adamson, John (1990). .^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Ashley, Maurice (1958). .
- Bennett, Martyn.^ Cromwell:_ Oliver has just sent from Whitehall for his great coat.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Oliver Cromwell (2006), ISBN 0415319226
- Clifford, Alan (1999). Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate Charenton Reformed Publishing, ISBN 095267162X. Religious study.
- Davis, J. C. (2001). Oliver Cromwell Hodder Arnold, ISBN 0340731184
- Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector Phoenix Press, ISBN 0753813319. Popular narrative.
- Firth, C.H. (1900). Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans ISBN 1402144741
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1417949619. Classic biography.
- Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0631183566. Short biography.
- Hill, Christopher (1970). God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution Penguin, ISBN 0297000438.
- Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Mason, James and Angela Leonard (1998). Oliver Cromwell Longman, ISBN 0582297346
- McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 9780955466304
- Morrill, John (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press
- Morrill, John (1990). .^ Cromwell:_ Mr. Lawes makes beautiful music, Oliver.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754.
- Paul, Robert (1958). The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life Of Oliver Cromwell
- Smith, David (ed.) (2003). Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum Blackwell, ISBN 0631227253
- Wedgwood, C.V. (1939). Oliver Cromwell Duckworth, ISBN 0715606565
- Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0521021898
Military studies
- Durston, Christopher (2000). .^ Outside in the night the Puritan troops are heard singing the One Hundred and Seventeenth Psalm: "O praise the Lord, all ye nations: praise him, all ye people.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ To which end I am now coming home, to call out all such men as have the love of England in their hearts, and fear God.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Full text online at Ebsco.
- Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
- Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, ISBN 1853671207
- Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait Of A Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicholson, ISBN 0297771485
- Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). .
- Kitson, Frank (2004).^ Intrigues with Scotland--there are none, we are assured, but if there were it would almost inevitably bring civil war again.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, ISBN 0297846884
- Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, ISBN 1857533437
- McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 9780955466304
- Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco.
- Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), .
- Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000).^ Cromwell:_ Now, young man, Oliver doesn't need any urging to it.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220
Surveys of era
- Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate Manchester University Press, ISBN 0719043174
- Coward, Barry (2003). The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Longman, ISBN 0-582-77251-6. Survey of political history of the era.
- Davies, Godfrey (1959). The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198217048. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.
- Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649-1658 University of California Press, ISBN 0520022815
- Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629-1660 Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333597508
- Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
- Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). .^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
onlinePDF (256 KB)
- Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333633881
- Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198226594
- Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199272686
- Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0141006943
Primary sources
- Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937-47). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words. [9].
- Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. [10]PDF (40.2 MB);
- Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). .
- Morrill, John (1990).^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.
- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
"Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . Full text online at Jstor. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.
- Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541
- Worden, Blair (2000). Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell, in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp. 131–170, ISSN 0068-1202.
External links
Books about Oliver Cromwell available online
.^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Oliver will be the foremost man in England.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Sir, this is a day when every man must speak the truth that is in him, or be silent in shame, and for ever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
I,
Vol. .^ The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oliver Cromwell, by John Drinkwater This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 .- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
I,
Vol. .^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
John Towill Rutt (1828):
Vol. I,
Vol. IV
Life of Oliver Cromwell by Michael Russell (1833): Vol. I, Vol. II
The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, and the State of Europe During the Early Part of the Reign of Louis XIV by Robert Vaughan (1838): Vol. I, Vol. II
Oliver Cromwell: An Historical Romance by Henry William Herbert (1840): Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III
Cromwell: A Prize Poem, Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 28, 1843 by Matthew Arnold (1843)
Life of Oliver Cromwell by Robert Southey (1845)
The Protector: A Vindication by Jean-Henri Merle d'Aubigné (1847)
Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: With Elucidations by Thomas Carlyle (1850): Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III,Vol. .
A Lecture on the Life and Character of Oliver Cromwell by Sherman B. Canfield (1850)
The Life of Oliver Cromwell by Joel T. Headley (1851)
Oliver Cromwell; Or, England in the Past Viewed in Relation to England in the Present by Joseph Denham Smith (1851)
History of Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth: From the Execution of Charles the First to the Death of Cromwell by François Guizot (1854): Vol.^ Cromwell:_ Oliver will be the foremost man in England.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ First Agent:_ Is this Mr. Oliver Cromwell's?- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
I, Vol. .
Oliver Cromwell, Daniel Defoe, Sir Richard Steele, Charles Churchill, Samuel Foote: Biographical Essays by John Forster (1860)
Ecclesiastical History of England: From the Opening of the Long Parliament to the Death of Oliver Cromwell by John Stoughton (1867): Vol.^ Cromwell:_ Whoever heard that heard history being made, John.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Cromwell:_ Oliver will be the foremost man in England.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
I, Vol. II
Oliver Cromwell: An Historical Tragedy by Alfred Bate Richards (1873)
The Quarrel Between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell: An Episode of the English Civil War by David Masson (1875)
Life of Oliver Cromwell by Francis Warre Warre-Cornish (1882)
Oliver Cromwell: The Man and His Mission by James Allanson Picton (1883)
Oliver Cromwell: His Life, Times, Battlefields, and Contemporaries by Edwin Paxton Hood (1883)
Cromwell in Ireland: A History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign by Denis Murphy (1885)
Life of Oliver Cromwell by Alphonse de Lamartine (1886)
Oliver Cromwell und die puritanische Revolution by Moritz Brosch (1886)
Oliver Cromwell by Frederic Harrison (c. 1888, published 1919)
Oliver Cromwell, The Protector: An Appreciation Based on Contemporary Evidence by Sir Reginald Palgrave (1890)
Oliver Cromwell and His Times: Social, Religious, and Political Life in the Seventeenth Century by G. Holden Pike (1890)
The House of Cromwell and the Story of Dunkirk: A Genealogical History of the Descendants of the Protector by James Waylen (1890)
Oliver Cromwell by George Henry Clark (1895)
Cromwell's Place in History by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1897)
Cromwell's Scotch Campaigns, 1650-51 by W. S. Douglas (1898)
The Two Protectors: Oliver and Richard Cromwell by Sir Richard Tangye (1899)
Oliver Cromwell: A History by Samuel Harden Church (1900)
Oliver Cromwell by John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn (1900)
The Protestant Interest in Cromwell's Foreign Relations by Jakob N. Bowman (1900)
Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1901)
King Cromwell by William Alfred Quayle (1902)
Oliver Cromwell: The Story of His Life and Work by Theodore Roosevelt (1902)
Through Great Britain and Ireland with Cromwell by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall (1912)
Oliver Cromwell: A Play by John Drinkwater (1921)
Other links
.^ Let the intrigues of Parliament with the army and its leaders--notably Oliver Cromwell--to the peril of the Church and the King, stand to the world in justification.- Oliver Cromwell / Drinkwater, John, 1882-1937 1 February 2010 3:34 UTC infomotions.com [Source type: Original source]
Gateway An Academic Journal on the Web: Spring 2003 PDF
Works by or about Oliver Cromwell at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
Vallely, Paul. The Big Question: Was Cromwell a revolutionary hero or a genocidal war criminal?, The Independent 4 September 2008.
Works by or about Oliver Cromwell in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Archival material relating to Oliver Cromwell listed at the UK National Register of Archives
| Persondata |
| NAME |
Cromwell, Oliver |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES |
|
| SHORT DESCRIPTION |
English military and political leader |
| DATE OF BIRTH |
25 April 1599 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH |
Huntingdon, England |
| DATE OF DEATH |
3 September 1658 |
| PLACE OF DEATH |
Whitehall, London, England |
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