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Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye
Sublime Ottoman State |
|
|
|
|
Motto
دولت ابد مدت
Devlet-i Ebed-müddet
(The Eternal State) |
Anthem
Ottoman imperial anthem |
|
Ottoman territories acquired between 1300 and 1683 (See: list of territories) |
| Capital |
Söğüt (1302–1326)
Bursa (1326–1365)
Edirne (1365–1453)
Constantinople (1453–1922)[1][2] |
| Religion |
Sunni Islam |
| Government |
Monarchy |
| Sultans |
| - 1299–1326 (first) |
Osman I |
| - 1918–22 (last) |
Mehmed VI |
| Grand Viziers |
| - 1320–31 (first) |
Alaeddin Pasha |
| - 1920–22 (last) |
Ahmed Tevfik Pasha |
| History |
|
| - Founded |
1299 |
| - Interregnum |
1402–1413 |
| - Ottoman–Habsburg wars |
1526–1791 |
| - 1. Constitutional |
1876–1879 |
| - 2. Constitutional |
1908–1918 |
| - Treaty of Lausanne[3] |
July 24, 1923 |
| Area |
| - 1689 |
5,200,000 km2 (2,007,731 sq mi) |
| Population |
| - 1856 est. |
35,350,000 |
| - 1906 est. |
20,884,000 |
| - 1914 est. |
18,520,000 |
| - 1919 est. |
14,629,000 |
| Currency |
Akche, Kurush, Lira, Sultani |
|
|
| Timeline of the Ottoman Empire |
|
.^ His reputation has also been burnished by the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", a foundation myth in which the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ November 30, 2007, 12:20 PM / Re: Faction - Ottoman Empire .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ November 27, 2007, 07:51 PM / Re: Faction - Ottoman Empire .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
It was
succeeded by the
Republic of Turkey,
[7] which was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923.
.^ In the beginning, they were selected from single Turkish males of Asia Minor; but after the 16th century, males living near the borders were also enlisted as Azaps.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[8] .^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
.^ The empire controlled nearly all of the former Byzantine lands, the Greeks gained a temporary reprieve when Timur Lenk invaded Anatolia in 1402 , taking Sultan Bayezid I prisoner.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[9]
The empire was at the centre of interactions between the
Eastern and
Western worlds for six centuries.
.^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
[12]History
Rise (1299–1453)
With the demise of the
Seljuk Sultanate of Rūm (
circa 1300), Turkish
Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called
Ghazi emirates.
.^ By 1300 , a weakened Byzantium had seen most of its Anatolian provinces lost among some ten Ghazi principalities .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
One of the
Ghazi emirates was led by
Osman I (from which the name Ottoman is derived), son of
Ertuğrul, in the region of
Eskişehir in western Anatolia. Osman I extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement toward the edge of the
Byzantine Empire. He moved the Ottoman capital to
Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation.
.^ Given the nickname "Kara" (Turkish for black) for his courage, Osman I was admired as a strong and dynamic ruler long after his death, as evident in the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "May he be as good as Osman."- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ [Turkish= msellemler] -Crackers' -in Turkish Deliler- (For their fearless and brave efforts in the first line of battle, and with their frightening animal clothes, the crackers name had been given.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ Following Ertuğrul's death in 1281, Osman became chief, or Bey, and by 1299 declared himself a sovereign ruler from the Seljuk empire .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
This is shown by the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "May he be as good as Osman."
His reputation was burnished by the
medieval Turkish story known as "
Osman's Dream". In this foundation myth, the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky). In this period, a formal
Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known as the
millet, under which religious and
ethnic minorities were allowed to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.
.^ In the century after the death of Osman I , Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ Osman I extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
The important city of
Thessaloniki was captured from the
Venetians in 1387. The Turkish victory at the
Battle of Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of
Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ The empire controlled nearly all of the former Byzantine lands, the Greeks gained a temporary reprieve when Timur Lenk invaded Anatolia in 1402 , taking Sultan Bayezid I prisoner.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by
Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s.
The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war which lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when
Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the
Interregnum. His grandson,
Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing
Constantinople on May 29, 1453, at the age of 21.
Mehmed II made the city the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and he assumed the title of
Kayser-i Rûm (Roman Emperor). But, Greeks and western European peoples did not recognize this title. The Russian
Tsars also claimed to be the successors to the eastern imperial title. To consolidate his claim, Mehmed II wanted to gain control over the Western capital, Rome, and Ottoman forces occupied parts of the
Italian peninsula They started with the invasion of
Otranto and
Apulia on July 28, 1480. After Mehmed II's death on May 3, 1481, the campaign in Italy was cancelled and Ottoman forces retreated.
Growth (1453–1683)
.^ Main article: Growth of the Ottoman Empire This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: an era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ There are two reasonably distinct periods in this era.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ottoman Empire, 1299–1683 This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: a golden era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ In the century after the death of Osman I , Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
During this time, the Ottoman Empire entered a
long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and
North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the
Black Sea,
Aegean and
Mediterranean seas and the Portuguese in the
Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
[14] This lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is frequently cited as a primary motivational factor for
Isabella I of Castile to fund
Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia.
.^ The Empire prospered under the rule of a series of committed and effecitve sultans, culminating in the rule of Süleyman I (the Magnificent) .
^ The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective sultans.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Converted at an early stage of their history to the Muslim faith, they propagated it wherever they went, and, under the leadership of the Sultans of the Seljuk dynasty, they established themselves in Konia, and advanced their rule to the gates of the Byzantine Empire.- Rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC hubpages.com [Source type: General]
Sultan
Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating
Shah Ismail of
Safavid Persia, in the
Battle of Chaldiran.
[15] Selim I established
Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the
Red Sea.
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[16]
Selim's successor,
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing
Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the
Kingdom of Hungary. (The western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent.)
[17][18] After his victory in the
Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established
Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other
Central European territories, (See also:
Ottoman–Hungarian Wars). He then laid
siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.
[19] In 1532, he made another
attack on Vienna with an army thought to be over 250,000 strong, but was repulsed 97 kilometres (60 mi) south of the city at the fortress of
Güns.
After further advances by the Ottomans in 1543, the Habsburg ruler
Ferdinand officially recognised Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman,
Transylvania,
Wallachia and, intermittently,
Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the
Ottomans took
Baghdad from the
Persians in 1535, gaining control of
Mesopotamia and naval access to the
Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.
[20]Under Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the
Mediterranean Sea.
[21] The exploits of the Ottoman admiral
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the
Ottoman Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies.
.^ Holy Roman Empire .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[22] France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to
Habsburg rule in both
Southern and
Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the
Kingdom of England and the
Dutch Republic against
Habsburg Spain, Italy and
Habsburg Austria.
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ With the Ottomans blockading sea lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient Silk and Spice routes, now under absolute Ottoman control.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottomans were able to keep control of the Red Sea route, but European trade with the East grew and Muslim trade stagnated.
On land, the Empire was preoccupied by
military campaigns in Austria and
Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.
Revolts and revival (1566–1683)
.^ The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In the second period after Suleiman's death, these structures were put under strain by diminishing territorial gains, economic difficulties and a protracted period of weak Sultans.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Sultans of this era were committed and effective leaders, and under their guidance innovative and disciplined military, social and bureaucratic structures were established.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of overland trade routes
[citation needed].
.^ Disruption of established trade routes and European search for new ones .- GHG Online - The impact of the Ottoman Empire on the middle East and Europe 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC emsc32.nysed.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ A number of western European states began to circumvent the Turkish trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia.
^ Western European states began to circumvent the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Economically, the huge in-pouring of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ This huge financial strain turned into a profound financial crisis as a result of inflation caused by the influx of silver from the New World.
.^ This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ This had serious negative consequences across all strata of Ottoman society, being manifest in Janissary revolts that toppled Sultans and ministers and widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, commonly known as the Celalî rebellions.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ First, all these challenges pushed the Ottomans into a new series of reforms directed towards centralization and Westernization.
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by
Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, Grand Vizier under
Selim II, in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilising the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia.
[23] In 1571, the Crimean khan
Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans,
burned Moscow.
[24] The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the
Battle of Molodi.
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[26]
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ Originally Posted by tzar Like I said, if you can help as with those dates and I would like to hear your opinion about our unit roster.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ About Seljuk's we don't need nothing because they are not in timefreame of Mod but if you know otttoman history very good we would like to hear your comments on our unit roster.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
^ Like I said, if you can help as with those dates and I would like to hear your opinion about our unit roster.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[28]
By contrast, the
Habsburg frontier had settled into a more or less permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was brought about by a stiffening of the Hapsburg defenses
[29] and also reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age,
Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from
Constantinople during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season.
.^ Ottoman and Near East Philatelic Society (APS# AF0247) Journal: The Levant; 3 issue per year.
On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation which fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism.
[30] Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the
military revolution caused the once-feared
Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The
Long War against
Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in
Janissary corps numbers. This contributed to problems of indiscipline, lack of effectiveness, and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which the government wrestled with but never fully solved during (and beyond) this whole period. The development of
pike and shot and later linear tactics with increased use of firearms by Europeans proved deadly against the massed infantry in close formation used by the Ottomans. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilisation turned to brigandage in the
Jelali revolts (1595–1610) which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
[31] With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.
[32].^ Ottoman power began to decline in the late 16th century.- Ottoman Empire (historical empire, Asia) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.britannica.com [Source type: Reference]
^ Why did the Ottoman state decline?- The principles of Ottoman rule in the Balkans 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC staff.lib.msu.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The
Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the
Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons.
.^ The troops he supported happened to be those of a Seljuk Sultan who rewarded him with territory in Eskişehir .- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
[35] The most prominent women of this period were
Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law
Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.
This period gave way to the highly significant
Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of
Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. On September 15, 1656 the octogenarian
Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide
Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor
Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed (Grand Vizier 1661–1676).
[36] The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in
Transylvania, the conquest of
Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern
Ukraine, with the strongholds of
Khotin and
Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of
Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.
[37]This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier
Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of
Vienna. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king
Jan Sobieski[38] at the
Battle of Vienna.
The alliance of the
Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and 15 years of see-sawing warfare culminated in the epochal
Treaty of Karlowitz (January 26, 1699) which ended the
Great Turkish War and for the first time saw the Ottoman Empire surrender control of significant European territories (many permanently), including
Ottoman Hungary.
[39] The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.
Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous
Murad IV (1612–1640) recaptured
Yerevan (1635) and
Baghdad (1639) from the
Safavids and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign.
[40] Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counter attack of 1695–6 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at
Zenta (September 11, 1697).
[41]Stagnation and reform (1683–1827)
During this period much territory in the Balkans was ceded to
Austria. Certain areas of the Empire, such as
Egypt and
Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of
Britain and France. In the 18th century, centralized authority gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of
wars were fought between the
Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century.
.^ The long period of Ottoman decline is typically broken by historians into an era of failed reforms and a subsequent era of modern times.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The long period of Ottoman decline is typically broken by historians into an era of failed reforms and a subsequent era of modernization.
^ The Tulip Era from 1718 to 1730 was a relatively peaceful period in which the Ottoman Empire oriented itself more towards Europe.- Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire... on Flickr - Photo Sharing! 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.flickr.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire... on Flickr - Photo Sharing! 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.flickr.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In the latter part of this period there were
educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as
Istanbul Technical University. Ottoman
science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.
.^ By this period though the influences had become regressive and conservative.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The
guilds of writers denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 43-year lag between its invention by
Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in 1450 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the Gutenberg press in
Constantinople that was established by the
Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493. Sephardic Jews migrated to the Ottoman Empire as they escaped from the
Spanish Inquisition of 1492.
The
Tulip Era (or
Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the
tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The region was peaceful between 1718 and 1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the
Pruth Campaign (
Great Northern War) in 1711 and the subsequent
Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defence against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted:
taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.
Ottoman military reform efforts begin with
Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the
Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a
Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic
Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826.
Serbia gained its autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in two uprisings in 1804 (led by
Đorđe Petrović – Karađorđe) and 1815 (led by
Miloš Obrenović), although Turkish troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867.
[42] In
1821, the
Greeks were the first to
declare war to the Sultan. Through the rebellion that originated in Moldavia, as a diversion, and followed by the main revolution in the
Peloponnese, the latter, along with the northern part of the
Gulf of Corinth became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to be completely liberated, in
1829. Serbia,
Bulgaria,
Romania and
Montenegro followed in the 1870s.
Decline and modernization (1828–1908)
The Crimean War caused an exodus of the
Crimean Tatars. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the
Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.
[43] Toward the end of the
Caucasian Wars, many
Circassians fled their homelands in the
Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire.
.^ The society features auctions, sales, translations, slide presentations, an advance bulletin service and 16 chapters around the country, as well as nine study units.
These people were called
Muhacir under a general definition.
[45]
Mahmud II started the modernization of
Turkey with the Edict of
Tanzimat in 1839, instituting European-style clothing, uniforms, weapons, agricultural and industrial innovations, architecture, education, legislation, institutional organization and land reform.
During the
Tanzimat period (from
Arabic Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganization") (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, and the replacement of
guilds with modern
factories. In 1856, the
Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession. He thus widened the scope of the 1839
Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane.
.^ Austria Philatelic Society (US) The Austria Philatelic Society (US) was formed in October 2000 and consists of about 150 colelctors who are interested in Austrian philately.
Another institution was the newly formed
Armenian National Assembly.
[46]The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the
Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "
Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the
Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on November 23, 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The Empire's
First Constitutional era (or
Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived. But the idea of
Ottomanism proved influential. A group of reformers known as the
Young Ottomans, primarily educated in western
universities, believed that a
constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the Empire's growing social unrest. Through a
military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan
Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of
Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent,
Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on November 23, 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the
Kanûn-ı Esâsî.
The
rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire . A burgeoning
national consciousness, together with a growing sense of
ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary
political parties rose dramatically.
.^ Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching effects during the 19th century and determined many of the choices that the Ottoman Empire would have to make during the 20th century.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ It was only the first of gradual European occupation of Ottoman's land during the 19th and early 20th centuries.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of
ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance.
.^ While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ While this period had many achievements, the ability of the Ottoman state to strongly influence the ethnic uprisings was questionable.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Punch cartoon from June 17, 1876.
Russian Empire preparing to let slip the Balkan "Dogs of War" to attack the Ottoman Empire, while policeman
John Bull (UK) warns Russia to take care. Supported by Russia, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire the following day.
.^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
It was officially recognized by the
Porte in 1829, after the end of the
Greek War of Independence.
In 1882 British forces occupied
Egypt on the pretext of bringing order.
Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces
de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the
Central Powers of
World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in
North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with
Algeria (occupied by France in 1830),
Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and
Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912.)
Economically, the Empire had difficulty in repaying the
Ottoman public debt to European banks, which caused the establishment of the
Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the Empire was not overrun by Western powers was their attempt to maintain a
Balance of Power in the area. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by the United Kingdom, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Dissolution (1908–1922)
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908.
The
Second Constitutional Era (
Turkish:
İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri'') began after the
Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marks the
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era is dominated by the politics of the
Committee of Union and Progress (
Turkish:
İttihâd ve Terakkî Cemiyeti), and the movement that would become known as the
Young Turks (
Turkish:
Jön Türkler). Profiting from the civil strife,
Austria-Hungary officially annexed
Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the
Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, in order to avoid a war. During the
Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) in which the Ottoman Empire lost
Libya, the
Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which lost its
Balkan territories except
East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of
Edirne (Adrianople) during the
Balkan Wars (1912–1913). Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear for Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.
[50] The
Baghdad Railway under German control became a source of international tension and played a role in the origins of
World War I.
[51]First World War
The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty establishing the
Ottoman-German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered
World War I after the
Goeben and Breslau incident, in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships which were fleeing British ships. These ships then – after having officially been transferred to the
Ottoman Navy, but effectively still under German control – attacked the Russian port of
Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the
Central Powers, in which it took part in the
Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the
Battle of Gallipoli and the
Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous
Caucasus Campaign against the Russians.
.^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
[52]Armenia
Armenians from
Kharpert being marched out under Turkish guard.
In 1915, as the
Russian Army continued to advance into Eastern Anatolia with the help of four Armenian volunteer
battalions from the
Caucasus region of the
Russian Empire, and aided by some Ottoman Armenians, the Ottoman government decided to use this as a pretext to begin their deportation of the whole of the entire Armenian population out of Anatolia, motivated by the massacres Armenians did in some regions of Anatolia against the Turkish population during their strive for independence, which was proved to be supported by the Allies of World War I.
[53][54][55] Through forced marches and massacres, the Armenians living in all parts of the empire were forcibly uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in
Syria and
Mesopotamia. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished during the Armenian Genocide but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000(per-Turkish est.) up to 1.5 million(per-Armenian est.).
[56][57]Arab Revolt
The
Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the
Armistice of Mudros was signed on October 30, 1918, the only parts of the
Arabian peninsula that were still under Ottoman control were
Yemen,
Asir, the city of
Medina, portions of northern
Syria and portions of northern
Iraq. These territories were handed over to the British forces on January 23, 1919. The Ottomans were also ordered to evacuate the parts of the former
Russian Empire in the
Caucasus (in present-day
Georgia,
Armenia and
Azerbaijan) which they had gained towards the end of WWI, following Russia's retreat from the war with the
Russian Revolution in 1917.
Defeat
The Empire was defeated in 1918 and did not take part in the Paris Conference that produced the
Treaty of Versailles. The helpless sultan was forced in 1920 to sign the
Treaty of Sèvres, by which the
partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was finalized.
.^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
)
The
occupation of Constantinople along with the
occupation of Smyrna mobilized the
establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the
Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) under the leadership of
Mustafa Kemal Pasha.
[63] The
Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and the last sultan,
Mehmed VI Vahdettin (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on November 17, 1922. The new independent
Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the
Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. The GNA officially declared the
Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The
Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on March 3, 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared
personae non gratae of Turkey and exiled.
Fall of the Empire
Departure of
Mehmed VI, last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1922.
The
Fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure, with the size of the Empire creating difficulties integrating its diverse regions economically.
[citation needed] Also, the Empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the
Decline of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of increased
cultural rights,
civil liberties and a
parliamentary system during the
Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the
nationalistic and
secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.
Ottoman descendants during and after the exile
In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the
Grand National Assembly, and were notified that they could apply.
Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in
1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan
Abdulhamid II,
Ertugrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether or not he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. In fact, he was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey." He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.
[64] On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, being the last surviving heir to the deposed Ottoman throne. At the end of the Empire, he was 4th in line to the throne as Imperial Highness Prince Shehzade Ertugrul Osman Effendi, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".
[65] Bayezid Osman, the second son of the Sultan
Abdülmecid I's younger grandson, Ibrahim Tevfik, is now the current eldest surviving member of the former ruling dynasty.There is one descendent yet to have his geneology verified by Turkish government. Adnan E Gulcur Osmanli is believed to be a Turkish-American citizen and is also believed to be the youngest surviving Osmanli.
[66]Economy
Constantinople bazaar, 1851.
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne (Adrianople) and Constantinople, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.
[67] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Constantinople and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Ottomans was welcomed by the immigrants.
.^ State Revenue Society (APS# AF0164) Journal: State Revenue News: 4 per year.
^ Ottoman and Near East Philatelic Society (APS# AF0247) Journal: The Levant; 3 issue per year.
[68] .^ The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues as much as possible without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ At the same time, the Jewish community was coming under increasing pressure from both the state and general society.
^ State Revenue Society (APS# AF0164) Journal: State Revenue News: 4 per year.
Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in
Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Central Bank is the first building at right.
.^ Until the 19th century the Ottoman Empire was more tolerant than Europe (see p.- History of a Family from Asia Minor 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.theopavlidis.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Ottoman Empire under Sulayman .- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all of their contemporaries.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[69] This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulema, which developed into a professional body.
[69] The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.
[70] .^ The economic structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ultimately, the main reasons for the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the empire created problems.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set out in search of a new route to the Orient.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman Empire (1300-1922) had at its apex extended over the entire Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans and had on two occasions laid siege to Vienna.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The Empire controlled the spice route that
Marco Polo once used. When
Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in
1498, and
Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith, an economic power that extended over three continents.
.^ Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Current Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Since this region lay on the only transit route between Europe and Asia Minor, migrations, invasions, trade and cultural exchange had a profound effect on its inhabitants.- The Second Capital of Ottoman Empire -Edirne- In Turkey Introduction and Photos 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.paradiseturkey.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The
Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the
Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.
[71]State
.^ Services: Purpose: Promote the collection and study of the postage stamps, postal stationery, revenues and postal history of the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Turkey, and Ottoman successor states.
The
.^ Sultan had the highest position in the system.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Until the nineteenth century, the position of muhtasib was farmed out to the highest bidder in accordance with a widespread Ottoman tax farming system.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy.
.^ Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles.
^ Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Certain pre-Islamic Turkish practices that had survived the influx of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[72] According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of
orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
[citation needed]
The "
Ottoman dynasty" or, as an institution, "
House of Osman" was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.
[73] The Ottoman dynasty was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects, however the dynasty immediately lost this "
Turkic" identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities.
[74] .^ There are, for instance, eleven incidences in which the sultan was dethroned because he was perceived as a threat to the state.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and could diminish the power and position of the sultan.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty,
[citation needed] both failures, which is suggestive of a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.
The highest position in Islam,
caliphate, was claimed by the sultan which was established as
Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan,
pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The
Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the
Valide Sultan.
.^ On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and could diminish the power and position of the sultan.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and through her influence could diminish the power and position of the sultan.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Bulgaria becomes a vassal state and, like Serbia, would remain one until 1878.- chronological 1300 and later 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC www.allcrusades.com [Source type: Original source]
For a period of time the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "
Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the
palace school geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for a successor.
.^ Palace schools were not a single track, but two.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The strong educational system of the palace school geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for a succesor.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ A plan for comprehensive state education had been formulated in 1846, and middle schools opened the next year.- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
- Ottoman and Persian Empires 1730-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
First, the
Madrasa (
Ottoman Turkish:
Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials in accordance with Islamic tradition.
.^ The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[75] The second track was a free
boarding school for the Christians, the
Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in
Rumelia and/or the
Balkans, a process known as
Devshirmeh (
Devşirme).
[76].^ Main articles: Porte , Grand Vizier , and Vizier Bâb-ı Âlî , the Sublime Porte Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the Sultans' political and executive authority was delegated to ( Viziers ).- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, he had a number of advisors and ministers.
^ Though the sultan was the sublime monarch he had a number of advisors and ministers.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as
Divan (after the 17th century it was renamed the "
Porte").
.^ The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a beylik , was composed of elders of the tribe.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik , was composed of the elders of the tribe.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Over nine years of careful planning and daring stratagems had brought what was left of the Ottoman state under Mehmeds sole control.- A Short History of the Ottoman Empire - Paradox Interactive Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC forum.paradoxplaza.com [Source type: General]
.^ Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors).- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ It was later modified so as to include professionals from the military and also local elites, such as religious and political advisors.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The ultimate threat of such an elite body of troops is always that it will become a Praetorian Guard whose interest is more political and personal than it is faithful and disinterested.- The Ottoman Sultans of Turkey & Successors in Romania 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Later still, beginning in 1320, a
Grand Vizier was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the
de facto head of state.
[69]
.^ Throughout Ottoman history, however —despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers— there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler.
^ Throughout Ottoman history, however"despite the sultan's supreme de jure authority and the Grand Vizier's sometime de facto one"there were many insistences in which local governors acted with a degree of independence, sometimes even in opposition to the ruler.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Throughout Ottoman history, however — despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers — there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
After the
Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy.
.^ Sultan did not have executive powers.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Soon the Sultan could avoid a fetva no longer and he was deposed.- Islamic History: The Ottoman Empire - ReligionFacts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.religionfacts.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As membership in the devsirme increased, it became so powerful that the sultan could no longer play off the old nobility against them, and now the devsirme used the government for its own benefit.- A General History of the Near East, Chapter 13 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC xenohistorian.faithweb.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The representatives formed the
Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.
The rapidly expanding empire used loyal, skilled subjects to manage the Empire, whether
Albanians,
Phanariot Greeks,
Armenians,
Serbs,
Bosniaks,
Hungarians or others.
.^ Ottoman bureaucracy Unlike many states, the Ottoman Empire was happy to use the talents of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims and Jews, in revolutionizing its administrative system.
^ The incorporation of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims, and Jews revolutionized its administrative system.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman state revolutionised its administrative system with the aid and experience of Greeks and other Christians, Muslims, and Jews, while many other states still held tightly to their own religions and national identities.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[77]This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the
Greek language to the west.
[74]The
Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father.
.^ The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The prayer statement "ever victorious" was also present in most.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The ornately stylized
Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish
calligraphy.
Society
One of the successes of the
social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations through an organization named as millets. The
Millets were the major religious groups that were allowed to establish their own communities under Ottoman rule.
.^ Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets , each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Main article: Millet (Ottoman Empire) Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets , each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The government utilized the legal entity known as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were able to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.- Faction - Ottoman Empire - Total War Center Forums 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.twcenter.net [Source type: General]
.^ Plurality was the key to the longevity of the Empire.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
As early as the reign of
Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to
Phanariot Greeks, and
Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory. Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions but this non-assimilative policy became a weakness after the
rise of nationalism. The
dissolution of the Empire based on ethnic differentiation (
balkanization) brought the final end which the failed
Ottomanism among the citizens and participatory politics of the
first or the
constitutional Era had successfully addressed.
The
lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life.
.^ Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact [32] .- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The community of Izmir, which became one of the most prominent Jewish centers in the Ottoman Empire, was unique from several important aspects.
The millet concept generated this fragmentation and enabled many to coexist in a
mosaic of
cultures. The capital of the Ottoman Empire,
Constantinople also had a unique culture, mainly because prior to Ottoman rule it had been the seat of both the
Roman and
Byzantine Empires. The lifestyle in the
Ottoman court in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the
Persian Shahs, but had many
Greek and European influences. The culture that evolved around the Ottoman court was known as the Ottoman Way, which was epitomized with the
Topkapı Palace. There were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today:
Sarajevo,
Skopje,
Thessaloniki,
Dimashq,
Baghdad,
Beirut,
Jerusalem,
Makkah and
Algiers with their own small versions of Ottoman Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. The
seraglio, which were the non-imperial places, in the context of the Turkish fashion, became the subject of works of art, where non-imperial prince or referring to other grand houses built around courtyards.
Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a part of Ottoman society.
[78] As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Empire.
[79] .^ During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice - which had been generally considered valid under Islamic law effectively since the beginning.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ One of the most influential works of the twentieth century in history; Spanish-Ottoman conflict (with European emphasis), seen in its geographical and economic context, during the last Mediterranean-centered century of Western history .- Bibliography on Ottoman History 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC www.ata.boun.edu.tr [Source type: Academic]
^ Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching effects during the 19th century and determined many of the choices that the Ottoman Empire would have to make during the 20th century.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the
slave trade but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they could never directly abolish the institution outright — as had gradually happened in Western Europe and the Americas.
Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and 31 between 1751 and 1800.
[80]
The exact population of the Ottoman Empire is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates. The figures from 1831 onwards are official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.
| Year |
Population |
| 1520 |
11,692,480[81] |
| 1566 |
15,000,000[82] |
| 1683 |
30,000,000[83] |
| 1831 |
7,230,660[81] |
| 1856 |
35,350,000[81] |
| 1881 |
17,388,604[81] |
| 1906 |
20,884,000[81] |
| 1914 |
18,520,000 |
| 1919 |
14,629,000 |
Culture
The Ottoman Empire had filled roughly the territories around the
Mediterranean Sea and
Black Sea while adopting the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in these regions and adding new dimensions to them.
.^ Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define, except for those of the regional centers and capital.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Istanbul Park Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define.
.^ However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of myriad ethnic and religious groups.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.
^ However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific intersecting multi-ethnic culture that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who"far from being monolithic"were in fact composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
This multicultural perspective of "
millets" was reflected in the Ottoman State's multi-cultural and multi-religious policies.
.^ As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When one talks about the "Ottoman Cuisine", one refers to the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was very apparent.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When compared to Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite is very apparent.
.^ When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was very apparent.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
"
Ottoman architecture" was influenced by
Persian,
Byzantine Greek and
Islamic architectures. The Ottoman architecture are a continuation of the pre-Islamic
Sassanid architecture. For instance, the dome covered square, which had been a dominant form in Sassanid became the nucleus of all Ottoman architecture.
[84][85] During the
Rise period the early or first Ottoman architecture period, the Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The
growth period of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, which Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the
Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however.
During the
Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe;
Baroque,
Rococo,
Empire and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the
mosque. The mosque was integral to society,
city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in
soup kitchens, theological schools,
hospitals,
Turkish baths and
tombs.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from
Istanbul and
Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artisans enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional
Byzantine art with elements of
Chinese art.
[86]"
Ottoman Turkish language" was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Ottomans had three influential languages,
Turkish,
Persian,
Arabic but they did not have a parallel status.
.^ Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particularly, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary.
^ At the Ottoman court, a version of Turkish with Arabic and Persian vocabulary was spoken (see: Ottoman Turkish language ).- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particular, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language that was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both.
.^ The two varieties of the language became extremely differentiated and this resulted in a low literacy rate among the general public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century).- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Second Siege of Vienna in 1683 The Habsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the 19th century, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Hapsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the 19th century, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses.
.^ The two varieties of the language became so differentiated that ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" ( arzıhâlci s) in order to be able to communicate with the government.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Consequently, Capsali "was recognized by the Ottoman government as the unqualified leader of the Ottoman Jewish community."
^ Because of his popularity and the animosity of the Muslim clerics, in April 1863 Persian diplomats requested that the Ottoman government order him transferred to Istanbul, upsetting his followers.- Ottoman and Persian Empires 1730-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (
mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.)
.^ In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ All ethnicities who had their own language continued to speak their own language in their family, in villages where two populations lived together, the two populations would often speak each other's language (Cyprus:Greek/Turkish, the Balkans: Albanian/ Greek/ Serbian/ Bulgarian, Eastern Turkey: Kurdish/ Turkish/ Armenian, Northeastern Turkey: Laz/ Georgian/ Greek/ Turkish).- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official languages, they kept these in use as well.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ They spoke their mother tongue: Ottoman, Persian, Turkish, Greek, Arabic and some European languages.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages, especially among the Christian
Levantine communities.
.^ The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans but they were still interested in their two other official languages so they kept them with a new limited usage: Persian for literature and Arabic solely for religious rites.
^ Similar millet s were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.
^ Similar millet s were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi ; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop ; and a number of other religious communities as well.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Usage of these came to be limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language, while Arabic was used solely for religious rites.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans but they were still interested in their two other official languages so they kept them with a new limited usage: Persian for literature and Arabic solely for religious rites.
^ The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official languages, they kept these in use as well.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Many famous Persian poets emerged at this time.
^ At this time many famous Persian poets emerged.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
"
Ottoman classical music" was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as
Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of
Byzantine music,
Arabic music, and
Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around
rhythmic units called
usul, which are somewhat similar to
meter in Western music, and
melodic units called
makam, which bear some resemblance to Western
musical modes. The
instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the
saz, the
bağlama, the
kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the
ud, the
tanbur, the
kanun, the
ney), and — later in the tradition — Western instruments (the
violin and the
piano).
.^ Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Ottoman Empire 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.pustakalaya.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Distinctions between Muslims and others were to be eliminated.- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
- Ottoman and Persian Empires 1730-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The Ottoman Empire (1300-1922) had at its apex extended over the entire Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans and had on two occasions laid siege to Vienna.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In the provinces, several different kinds of
Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (
Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were:
Janissary Music,
Roma music,
Belly dance,
Turkish folk music.
"
Ottoman cuisine" refers to the cuisine of the capital —
Constantinople, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through
Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the
Yalıs of the
Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Today, Ottoman cuisine lives in the
Balkans,
Anatolia and the Middle East, "common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact".
[87] It is typical of any great cuisine in the world to be based on local varieties and on mutual exchange and enrichment among them, but at the same time to be homogenized and harmonized by a metropolitan tradition of refined taste.
[87]Numerous traditions and cultural traits of this previous empire (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottomans, who elaborated them into new forms and blended them with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity.
Religion
Before adopting
Islam — a process that was greatly facilitated by the
Abbasid victory at the 751
Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia — the Turkic peoples practised a variety of
shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes — including the
Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans — gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century.
The Ottoman Empire was, in principle, tolerant towards
Christians and
Jews (the "Ahl Al-Kitab", or "People of the Book", according to the
Qur'an) but not towards the
polytheists, in accordance with the
Sharia law. Such tolerance was subject to a non-Muslim tax, the
Jizya.
Under the
millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox
millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to
Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or
zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox
millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.
[88],[89]The state's relationship with the
Greek Orthodox Church was largely peaceful, and recurrent oppressive measures taken against the Greek church were a deviation from generally established practice. The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the
Greek War of Independence of 1821–1829 and, later in the 19th century, the rise of the Ottoman
constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with
Ottomanism. Other Orthodox churches, like the
Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, until Sultan
Abdülaziz established the
Bulgarian Exarchate in 1870 and reinstated the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church.
Similar
millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the
Haham Başı or Ottoman
Chief Rabbi; the
Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head
bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.
Law
An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see image detail for explanation)
The Ottoman legal system accepted the
religious law over its subjects. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local
jurisprudence.
.^ Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Throughout the Ottoman Empire, the quality of medical care was inadequate, and the central government took limited interest in the health of its people.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Indigenous state administrative institutions in Qing China, the Ottoman Empire, and Siam failed to meet this test in the early nineteenth century.- Richard S. Horowitz | International Law and State Transformation in China, Siam, and the Ottoman Empire during the Nineteenth Century | Journal of World History, 15.4 | The History Cooperative 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.historycooperative.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[90] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local
millet.
[90] .^ The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ As such, the Ottomans regarded themselves as the heirs to both Roman and Islamic traditions, and hence rulers of a "Universal Empire" through this "unification of cultures".- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Main article: Millet (Ottoman Empire) Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets , each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[90] The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative
Kanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic
Yasa and
Töre which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.
.^ The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia'' system.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Throughout the empire, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic sharia (شريعة) law system, and the other was the Turkish kanun system.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts — which were the Empire's primary courts — could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue.
.^ Further information: Mecelle Ottoman legal system accepted the Religious law over its subjects.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (ذمي zimmi ) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce{citation needed}, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.- Ottoman Empire at AllExperts 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The Islamic
Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the
Qur'ān; the
Hadīth, or words of the
prophet Muhammad;
ijmā', or
consensus of the members of the
Muslim community;
qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Constantinople and Bursa.
Military
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by
Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century.
.^ The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ambassadors at Topkapı Palace Ottoman state organization was a very complex system that had two main dimensions: The military administration and the civic administration.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ He argued that the antiquated Turkish military organization placed the Ottoman empire in peril.- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
- Ottoman and Persian Empires 1730-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
.^ A Janissary sketched by the renowned Venetian artist Gentile Bellini (1429-1507) who also painted the famous portrait of Sultan Mehmed II Sipahis were the elite cavalry knights of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Beginning in the 1840s elements of European-style penal and commercial law were incorporated into the already complex Ottoman legal system.- Richard S. Horowitz | International Law and State Transformation in China, Siam, and the Ottoman Empire during the Nineteenth Century | Journal of World History, 15.4 | The History Cooperative 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.historycooperative.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ambassadors at Topkapı Palace Ottoman state organization was a very complex system that had two main dimensions: The military administration and the civic administration.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
The main corps of the Ottoman Army included
Janissary,
Sipahi,
Akıncı and
Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ
muskets and
cannons. The Ottomans began using
falcons, which were short but wide cannons, during the
Siege of Constantinople (1422). The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast
Turkoman and
Arabian horses (progenitors of the
Thoroughbred racing horse),
[91][92] and often applied tactics similar to those of the
Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became evident from the mid 17th century and after the
Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.
.^ Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire .- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ But by the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was in military and financial disarray.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In 1826 Sultan
Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the
Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order).
.^ The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman empire began sending resident ambassadors to major capitals—first to London in 1793 and then in 1797 to Paris, Vienna, and Berlin.- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ The length of the war (it ended in 1606) and the lack of Ottoman victories for most of it hinted that the most important Ottoman institution, the army, was no longer what it used to be.- A General History of the Near East, Chapter 13 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC xenohistorian.faithweb.com [Source type: Original source]
Consequently, the
Young Turks movement first began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.
The
Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of
North Africa, with the addition of
Algeria and
Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of
Algeria (1830) and
Greece (1821), Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan
Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, United Kingdom built its first
submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.
[93] However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan
Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist
Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). He locked most of the fleet inside the
Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the
Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the
Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The
Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 in order to purchase new ships through public donations.
The
Ottoman Air Force was founded in June 1909, making it one of the first combat aviation organizations in the world. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the
Hava Okulu (Air Academy) in
Constantinople on July 3, 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Air Academy quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the
Armed Forces.
.^ In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was activated by the Air Academy and the first separate Reconnaissance division was established by the Air Force.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The founding of the Air Academy quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Armed Forces .- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Efforts were made to reorganize the Ottoman Air Force, but this ended in 1918 with the end of the First World War and the occupation of Istanbul .- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
In June 1914 a new military academy,
Deniz Hava Okulu (Naval Aviation Academy) was founded. With the outbreak of
World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Air Force fought on many fronts during
World War I, from
Galicia in the west to the
Caucasus in the east and
Yemen in the south.
See also
- ^ Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, (Basic Books, 2005), 57; "Istanbul was only adopted as the city's official name in 1930..".
- ^ http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne ;
ARTICLE 91
All grants of patents and registrations of trade-marks, as well as all registrations of transfers or assignments of patents or trade marks which have been duly made since the 30th October, 1918, by the Imperial Ottoman Government at Constantinople or elsewhere..
- ^ The Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. The abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate on November 1, 1922 did not end the Ottoman State, but only the Ottoman dynasty. The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (July 24, 1923). It recognized the new "Ankara government", and not the old Constantinople-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Constantinople-based government was practically headless after the sultan left the capital. The TBMM declared the successor state to be the "Republic of Turkey" (October 29, 1923).
- ^ Ottoman banknote with Arabic script
- ^ The Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922. Mehmed VI, the last Ottoman Sultan, departed from Constantinople on November 17, 1922.
- ^ With the Treaty of Lausanne (signed on July 24, 1923) the new Turkish State (still not a Republic, which was proclaimed later on October 29, 1923) headquartered in Ankara is internationally recognized as the successor to the Ottoman State.
- ^ Full text of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
- ^ From the article on the Ottoman Empire in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- ^ Turkish Navy Official Website: "Atlantik'te Türk Denizciliği"
- ^ Glasse, Cyril, New Encyclopedia of Islam, (Rowman Altamira, 2003), 229.
- ^ Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 57.
- ^ Brown, Leon Carl, Imperial Legacy, (Columbia University Press, 1997), 1.
- ^ (Turkish) Sultan Osman I, Turkish Ministry of Culture website
- ^ Karpat, Kemal H. (1974). The Ottoman state and its place in world history. Leiden: Brill. pp. 111. ISBN 90-04-03945-7.
- ^ Savory, R. M. (1960). "The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907-30/1501-24)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 23 (1): 91–105. doi:10.2307/609888. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X%281960%2923%3A1%3C91%3ATPOOTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B.
- ^ Hess, Andrew C. (January 1973). "The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War". International Journal of Middle East Studies 4 (1): 55–76. doi:10.2307/162225. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-7438%28197301%294%3A1%3C55%3ATOCOE%28%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ^ Imber, 50.
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 206
- ^ Mansel, 61
- ^ Imber, 53.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.64–65.
- ^ Davies (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.. p.16.
- ^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). "Ukraine: a history.". p 106
- ^ "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
- ^ a b Kinross, 272.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.67.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.71
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.96.
- ^ Inalcik, An Economic And Social History Of The Ottoman Empire, Vol 1 1300–1600 p.24.
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 281
- ^ Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, July 1, 2003
- ^ Leslie P. Peirce, The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire and Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.74–75.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.77–81.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.80–81.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.81–82.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.84.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.73.
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.83–84.
- ^ Berend, Tibor Iván, History derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the long nineteenth century, (University of California Press Ltd, 2003), 127.
- ^ "Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire", by Bryan Glynn Williams, Cahiers du Monde russe, 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108.
- ^ By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.
- ^ Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922, Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995
- ^ Barsoumian, Hagop. "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 198. ISBN 0-3121-0168-6.
- ^ See Hovanissian, Richard G. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II, pp. 203–238.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1914", p. 217.
- ^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ^ Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924. Universiteit Leiden.
- ^ Jastrow, Morris, The War and the Bagdad Railroad (1917) ASIN B0006D8OSQ
- ^ Spencer Tucker, ed. Encyclopedia of World War I (2005) p 1080
- ^ See Peter Balakian. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0-0601-9840-0
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. "World War I and the Armenian Genocide" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II, pp. 239-273.
- ^ Akcam. A Shameful Act, pp. 109-204.
- ^ Charny, Israel et al. A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars. International Association of Genocide Scholars. June 13, 2005. Accessed September 12, 2009.
- ^ See Levon Marashlian. Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Zoryan Institute, 1991.
- ^ "The Obstacle To The Reconciliation". L'Actuel. 2008-08-05. http://lactuel.be/detail.php?id=3494. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
- ^ "Turkish NGOs In US And Canada Send Letter To US Congress Members Against Armenian Claims". Eurasia 21. 2005-04-21. http://www.eurasia21.com/cgi-data/news/files/3271.shtml. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
- ^ "Head Of Center Of Anatolian History Studies: "During The Genocide In Khojaly, Armenians Argued About The Gender Of Unborn Children Of Pregnant Women And Killed Them By Ripping Up Their Abdominals"". Today.AZ. 2008-12-22. http://today.az/news/politics/49721.html. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
- ^ "Changing History". The Daily Targum. 2004-04-14. http://www.eden.rutgers.edu/~rutsa/basoglu.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
- ^ "There Was No Genocide!" (in French). Nouvelles D'Armenie Magazine. 2006-09-25. http://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article=24943. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
- ^ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919
- ^ "Political Obituaries: Ertugrul Osman". The Daily Telegraph. 2009-09-27. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html. Retrieved 2009-10-26.
- ^ "'Last Ottoman' dies in Istanbul". BBC. 2009-09-24. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8273396.stm. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
- ^ "Atatürk hayatımızı kurtardı (in Turkish)". Vatan. 2009-10-03. http://haber.gazetevatan.com/Ataturk_hayatimizi_kurtardi/262639/1/Gundem. Retrieved 2009-10-26.
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 209 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 217 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ a b c Antony Black (2001), "The state of the House of Osman (devlet-ı al-ı Osman)" in The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, p. 199
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1971), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, p. 120
- ^ Halil inalcik, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U.P. 1970, p. 218 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p.38.
- ^ Antony Black, ibid, page 197
- ^ a b Donald Quataert, 2
- ^ Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the civilization of the Ottoman Empire, p151
- ^ Kemal H Karpat, Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis, p204
- ^ The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations
- ^ Supply of Slaves
- ^ Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery
- ^ Université de Strasbourg. Institut de turcologie, Université de Strasbourg. Institut d'études turques, Association pour le développement des études turques. (1998). Turcica. Éditions Klincksieck. p. 198.
- ^ a b c d e M. Kabadayı, Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic 1500–2000
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 206
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 281
- ^ Von Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History and Historiography at Play, pp.98–103, Books.Google.de
- ^ Von Helen Gardner, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, p. 263, ISBN 0155037587,Books.google.de
- ^ Eli Shah. The Ottoman Artistic Legacy
- ^ a b Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London and New York, p. 52
- ^ "The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula", Sean Krummerich, Loyola University New Orleans, The Student Historical Journal, volume 30 (1998–99
- ^ Turkish Toleration, The American Forum for Global Education
- ^ a b c Lauren A. Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900", pp109–110
- ^ Milner The Godolphin Arabian pp. 3–6
- ^ Wall Famous Running Horses p. 8
- ^ Ellesmerereportstandard.co.uk, The standard - Petition created for submarine name
External references
Bibliography
General surveys
- Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) 357pp Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. .^ The Ottoman Empire reached its peak with the Turks settled in Buda on the left bank of the Danube after failing in their siege of Vienna.
- Timeline Turkey to 1960 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC timelines.ws [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ For the first time the Ottoman empire lost substantial territory to Europeans.- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ This was the half-military, half-civil and financial organisation which Solyman at the beginning of 1545 conferred upon the Hungarian portion of the Ottoman Empire.
.
- Finkel, Caroline.^ R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert, (1971) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 , p120 16.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ottoman and Persian Empires 1300-1730 .- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ In 2006 Caroline Finkel authored “Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire.” (HNQ, 2/19/01)(Econ, 2/25/06, p.88) 1281-1326 Osman Gazi (1258-1326) or Othman Ghazi, ruled as Sultan of the Ottomans.- Timeline Turkey to 1960 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC timelines.ws [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2. Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire (2003) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Heywood, Colin. Writing Ottoman History: Documents and Interpretations. Ashgate, 2002. 376 pp.
- Imber, Colin. .^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert, (1971) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 , p120 16.
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ottoman and Persian Empires 1300-1730 .- Ottoman Empire 1500-1875 by Sanderson Beck 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy established the empire as a great trading power.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.
- Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 1995. 1026 pp.
- Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. 1972.
- Kinross, Lord. Ottoman Centuries (1979)
- Levy, Avigdor, ed. Jews, Turks, Ottomans: A Shared History, Fifteenth to the Twentieth Century. (2002). 304 pp.
- McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923 1997 Questian.com, online edition
- Mansel, Philip. .^ Istanbul: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924 .
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Istanbul, its capital since 1453, was a vibrant imperial city.- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026246-6.
- Ochsenwald, William, and Sydney Nettleton Fisher. The Middle East: A History (2003) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire. 1999. 276 pp.
- Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 (2005), standard scholarly survey Amazon.com, excerpt and text search ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
- Rogan, Eugene. The Arabs. A History. London, Allen Lane. 2009 ISBN 978-0-71399-903-7
- Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1, 1977.
- Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire. (2003). 399 pp.
- Uyar, Mesut. A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk (2009) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
to 1830
- Braude, Benjamin, and Bernard Lewis, eds. Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society (1982) Questia.com, online edition
- Clot, André. Suleiman the Magnificent. 1993. 399 pp
- Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (2002) Questia.com, online edition
- Guilmartin, John F., Jr. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, (Spring 1988) 18:4., pp721–747.
- Holt, P. M. Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, 1516–1922: A Political History. 1966.
- Kunt, Metin and Woodhead, Christine, ed. Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. 1995. 218 pp.
- Leiner, Frederick C. The end of Barbary terror : America's 1815 war against the pirates of North Africa. New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.
- Lybyer, Albert Howe. .^ Throughout the Ottoman Empire, the quality of medical care was inadequate, and the central government took limited interest in the health of its people.
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^ (MC, 4/13/02) 1520 Sep 21, Suleiman I (the Magnificent), son of Selim, became the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople.- Timeline Turkey to 1960 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC timelines.ws [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3.
- Melis, Nicola, "The importance of Hormuz for Luso-Ottoman Gulf-centred policies in the 16th century: Some observations based on contemporary sources", in R. Loureiro-D. Couto (eds.), Revisiting Hormuz - Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period, "Maritime Asia" 19, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian/Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2008, pp. 107–120.
- Murphy, Rhoads Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700 (1999) 278 pp.
- Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapı Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0-262-14050-0.
- Parry, V.J. A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730 (1976)
- Pierce, Leslie P. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. 1993. 374 pp.
- Shaw, Stanford J. .^ The Ottoman Empire, since its beginning in 13th century predates the use of anthems, did not use a specific royal or national anthem until late in its history.
- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert, (1971) An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 , p120 16.- What is Ottoman Empire? 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The Russo-Turkish wars dated to the 17th century, the Russians generally gaining territory and influence over the declining Ottoman Empire.- Timeline Turkey to 1960 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC timelines.ws [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Cambridge University Press, 1976. ISBN 978-0-521-21280-9.
- Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (2003) 95 pp Questia.com, online edition
- Wheatcroft, Andrew. The Ottomans. 384 pp.
Post 1830
- Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914, (1969).
- Arnold, Guy. Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War. (2002). 179 pp.
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^ Super Search All Ottomans (1,064) .- Ottomans, Modern Ottomans, Casual Ottomans, & Storage Ottomans 18 September 2009 8:28 UTC www.csnstores.com [Source type: General]
Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change. (1996). 220 pp.
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- Jelavich, Barbara. .^ By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, treatises of international law were on every diplomat's reference shelf.
- Richard S. Horowitz | International Law and State Transformation in China, Siam, and the Ottoman Empire during the Nineteenth Century | Journal of World History, 15.4 | The History Cooperative 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.historycooperative.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Ottoman Medicine and Transculturalism from the Sixteenth through the Eighteenth Century.” In Bulletin of the History of Medicine 66 (1992): 376-403 .- The Sick Man and his Medicine: 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC leda.law.harvard.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ But in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries these hierarchies were early flashpoints of conflict.- Richard S. Horowitz | International Law and State Transformation in China, Siam, and the Ottoman Empire during the Nineteenth Century | Journal of World History, 15.4 | The History Cooperative 28 January 2010 0:37 UTC www.historycooperative.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-25249-0.
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^ Great_Fire_of_Smyrna) 1922 Nov 1, The Ottoman Empire ended as Turkey’s Grand National Assembly abolished the sultanate.- Timeline Turkey to 1960 23 September 2009 3:49 UTC timelines.ws [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Though almost constantly at war, the Ottoman empire brought peace to most of the peoples in it.- A General History of the Near East, Chapter 13 21 January 2010 22:41 UTC xenohistorian.faithweb.com [Source type: Original source]
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Foreign language books
- Kitsikis, Dimitri. L'Empire ottoman, Presses Universitaires de France, 3rd ed., 1994. ISBN 2-13-043459-2
- Lafi (Nora), Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes. Genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie (1795–1911), Paris: L'Harmattan, 2002, 305 pp.
- Lafi (Nora), Municipalités méditerranéennes. Les réformes municipales ottomanes au miroir d'une histoire comparée, Berlin: K. Schwarz, 2005.
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