# Partial fractions in integration: Wikis

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# Encyclopedia

In integral calculus, the use of partial fractions is required to integrate the general rational function. Any rational function of a real variable can be written as the sum of a polynomial function and a finite number of partial fractions. Each partial fraction has as its denominator a polynomial function of degree 1 or 2, or some positive integer power of such a function. If the denominator is a 1st-degree polynomial or a power of such a polynomial, then the numerator is a constant. If the denominator is a 2nd-degree polynomial or a power of such a polynomial, then the numerator is a 1st-degree polynomial.

## A 1st-degree polynomial in the denominator

The substitution u = ax + b, du = a dx reduces the integral

$\int {1 \over ax+b}\,dx$

to

$\int {1 \over u}\,{du \over a}={1 \over a}\int{du\over u}={1 \over a}\ln\left|u\right|+C = {1 \over a} \ln\left|ax+b\right|+C.$

## A repeated 1st-degree polynomial in the denominator

The same substitution reduces such integrals as

$\int {1 \over (ax+b)^8}\,dx$

to

$\int {1 \over u^8}\,{du \over a}={1 \over a}\int u^{-8}\,du = {1 \over a} \cdot{u^{-7} \over(-7)}+C = {-1 \over 7au^7}+C = {-1 \over 7a(ax+b)^7}+C.$

## An irreducible 2nd-degree polynomial in the denominator

Next we consider such integrals as

$\int {x+6 \over x^2-8x+25}\,dx.$

The quickest way to see that the denominator x2 − 8x + 25 is irreducible is to observe that its discriminant is negative. Alternatively, we can complete the square:

$x^2-8x+25=(x^2-8x+16)+9=(x-4)^2+9\,$

and observe that this sum of two squares can never be 0 while x is a real number.

In order to make use of the substitution

$u=x^2-8x+25\,$
$du=(2x-8)\,dx$
$du/2=(x-4)\,dx$

we would need to find x − 4 in the numerator. So we decompose the numerator x + 6 as (x − 4) + 10, and we write the integral as

$\int {x-4 \over x^2-8x+25}\,dx + \int {10 \over x^2-8x+25}\,dx.$

The substitution handles the first summand, thus:

$\int {x-4 \over x^2-8x+25}\,dx = \int {du/2 \over u} = {1 \over 2}\ln\left|u\right|+C = {1 \over 2}\ln(x^2-8x+25)+C.$

Note that the reason we can discard the absolute value sign is that, as we observed earlier, (x − 4)2 + 9 can never be negative.

Next we must treat the integral

$\int {10 \over x^2-8x+25} \, dx.$

First, complete the square, then do a bit more algebra:

$\int {10 \over x^2-8x+25} \, dx = \int {10 \over (x-4)^2+9} \, dx = \int {10/9 \over \left({x-4 \over 3}\right)^2+1}\,dx$

Now the substitution

$w=(x-4)/3\,$
$dw=dx/3\,$

gives us

${10 \over 3}\int {dw \over w^2+1} = {10 \over 3} \arctan(w)+C={10 \over 3} \arctan\left({x-4 \over 3}\right)+C.$

Putting it all together,

$\int {x + 6 \over x^2-8x+25}\,dx = {1 \over 2}\ln(x^2-8x+25) + {10 \over 3} \arctan\left({x-4 \over 3}\right) + C.$

## A repeated irreducible 2nd-degree polynomial in the denominator

Next, consider

$\int {x+6 \over (x^2-8x+25)^{8}}\,dx.$

Just as above, we can split x + 6 into (x − 4) + 10, and treat the part containing x − 4 via the substitution

$u=x^2-8x+25,\,$
$du=(2x-8)\,dx$
$du/2=(x-4)\,dx.$

This leaves us with

$\int {10 \over (x^2-8x+25)^{8}}\,dx.$

As before, we first complete the square and then do a bit of algebraic massaging, to get

$\int {10 \over (x^2-8x+25)^{8}}\,dx =\int {10 \over ((x-4)^2+9)^{8}}\,dx =\int {10/9^{8} \over \left(\left({x-4 \over 3}\right)^2+1\right)^8}\,dx.$

Then we can use a trigonometric substitution:

$\tan\theta={x-4 \over 3},\,$
$\left({x-4 \over 3}\right)^2+1=\tan^2\theta+1=\sec^2\theta,\,$
$d\tan\theta =\sec^2\theta\,d\theta={dx \over 3}.\,$

Then the integral becomes

$\int {30/9^{8} \over \sec^{16}\theta} \sec^2\theta \,d\theta ={30 \over 9^{8}}\int \cos^{14} \theta \, d\theta.$

By repeated applications of the half-angle formula

$\cos^2\theta={1 \over 2}( 1 + \cos(2\theta)),$

one can reduce this to an integral involving no higher powers of cos θ higher than the 1st power.

Then one faces the problem of expression sin(θ) and cos(θ) as functions of x. Recall that

$\tan(\theta)={x - 4 \over 3},$

and that tangent = opposite/adjacent. If the "opposite" side has length x − 4 and the "adjacent" side has length 3, then the Pythagorean theorem tells us that the hypotenuse has length √((x − 4)2 + 32) = √(x2 −8x + 25).

Therefore we have

$\sin(\theta) = {\mathrm{opposite} \over \mathrm{hypotenuse}} = {x-4 \over \sqrt{x^2 - 8x + 25}},$
$\cos(\theta) = {\mathrm{adjacent} \over \mathrm{hypotenuse}} = {3 \over \sqrt{x^2 - 8x + 25}},$

and

$\sin(2\theta) = 2\sin(\theta)\cos(\theta) = {6(x-4) \over x^2 - 8x + 25}.$