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| Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico
(Spanish)
|
|
|
Motto:
Latin: Joannes Est Nomen Eius
Spanish: Juan es su nombre
English: John is his name |
Anthem: La Borinqueña
|
|
|
Capital
(and largest city) |
San Juan
18°27′N 66°6′W / 18.45°N 66.1°W / 18.45; -66.1 |
| Official language(s) |
Spanish and English[1] |
| Ethnic groups |
White (mostly Spanish origin) 76.2%, Black 6.9%, Asian 0.3%, Amerindian 0.2%, Mixed 4.4%, other 12%. (2007)[2] |
| Demonym |
Puerto Rican |
| Government |
Republic, three-branch government |
| - |
President |
Barack Obama (D) |
| - |
Governor |
Luis Fortuño (PNP) |
| - |
Federal legislative branch |
United States Congress |
| Sovereignty |
United States[3] |
| - |
Cession |
December 10, 1898
from Kingdom of Spain |
| Area |
| - |
Total |
9,104 km2 (169th)
3,515 sq mi |
| - |
Water (%) |
1.6 |
| Population |
| - |
July 2007 estimate |
3,994,259 (127th in the world; 27th in U.S.) |
| - |
2000 census |
3,913,055 |
| - |
Density |
438/km2 (21st in the world; 2nd in U.S.)
1,115/sq mi |
| GDP (PPP) |
2007 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$77.4 billion (N/A) |
| - |
Per capita |
$19,600 (N/A) |
| Currency |
United States dollar (USD) |
| Time zone |
AST (UTC–4) |
| - |
Summer (DST) |
No DST (UTC–4) |
| Internet TLD |
.pr |
| Calling code |
+1 (spec. +1-787 and +1-939) |
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "rich port") is composed of an
archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands, the largest of which are
Vieques,
Culebra, and
Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is the smallest by land area and second smallest by population among the four
Greater Antilles, which also include
Cuba,
Hispaniola, and
Jamaica.
Puerto Ricans often call the island
Borinquen, from
Borikén, its
indigenous Taíno name.
[4][5] The terms
boricua and
borincano derive from
Borikén and
Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known as "
La Isla del Encanto", which translated means "The Island of Enchantment."
History
Pre-Columbian era
The history of the archipelago of Puerto Rico before the arrival of
Christopher Columbus is not well known. What is known today comes from archaeological findings and early
Spanish accounts. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by
Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, 293 years after the first Spaniards arrived on the island.
[6]The first settlers were the
Ortoiroid people, an
Archaic Period culture of
Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an
Arcaico (Archaic) man (named Puerto Ferro man) dated to around 2000 BC. Between AD 120 and 400 arrived the
Igneri, a tribe from the South American
Orinoco region. Between the 4th and 10th centuries, the Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed (and perhaps clashed) on the island. Between the 7th and 11th centuries the
Taíno culture developed on the island, and by approximately 1000 AD had become dominant. This lasted until
Christopher Columbus arrived in 1493.
[7][8]Spanish colony
Garita at fort San Felipe del Morro
The
Spanish soon colonized the island. Taínos were forced into
slavery and were decimated by the harsh conditions of work and by
diseases brought by the Spaniards.
[12] In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique
Urayoán, as planned by
Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier
Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death.
[13]The revolt was defeated by Ponce de León's men and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. By 1520, when
Charles V issued a royal decree that collectively emancipated the remaining Taíno population, the Taíno presence had almost vanished.
[14]African slaves were introduced to replace the Taíno. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and port for the
Spanish Empire. Various forts and walls, such as
La Fortaleza,
El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and
El Castillo de San Cristóbal, were built to protect the port of San Juan from European enemies. France, the
Netherlands and England made several attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest long-term occupancy. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries colonial emphasis was on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers.
In 1809, in the midst of the
Peninsular War, the
Supreme Central Junta based in
Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the recently convened
Spanish parliament. The representative,
Ramon Power y Giralt, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These
parliamentary and constitutional reforms, which were in force from 1810 to 1814 and again from 1820 to 1823, were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by
Ferdinand VII.
.^ The local character of the island expanded.- Sai Movement in Puerto Rico 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC sathyasai.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Chinese labor was introduced in the nineteenth century, and immigrants came from Andalusia, Catalonia, the Basque provinces, Galicia, and the Canary Islands.- Culture of Puerto Rico - History and ethnic relations, Urbanism, architecture, and the use of space 11 September 2009 9:37 UTC www.everyculture.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Puerto Rico – Prosperous and Progressive During the early nineteenth century, because of constitutional reforms, the economy and population of the island saw a surge with hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese, and Portuguese families, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain and former Spainish colonies in South America, arriving in Puerto Rico.- Sai Movement in Puerto Rico 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC sathyasai.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
After the rapid gaining of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and
Cuba became the only Spanish colonies found in the Americas. The Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. This time the decree was printed in three languages — Spanish, English and French — intending to attract Europeans of non-Spanish origin, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the
Roman Catholic Church.
[15]
The Original Lares Revolutionary Flag
Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "
Grito de Lares". It began in the rural town of
Lares but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of
San Sebastián. Leaders of this independence movement included
Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as
Segundo Ruiz Belvis. In 1897,
Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an 'overseas province' of Spain. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, which held the power to annul any legislative decision, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General
Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on July 17, 1898.
[16][17][18]United States colony
The United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule of the U.S. with officials, including the governor, appointed by the
President of the United States. The
Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives, also a judicial system following the
American legal system that includes both
state courts and
federal courts establishing a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and an
United State District Court; and a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner. In 1917, "Puerto Ricans were collectively made U.S. citizens"
[20] via the
Jones Act. The same Act also provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, a
bill of rights and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner to a four year term. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship, many Puerto Ricans were drafted into World War I and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation in which a national military draft was in effect.
Natural disasters, including a major
earthquake, a
tsunami and several
hurricanes, and the
Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.
[21] Some political leaders, like
Pedro Albizu Campos who led the
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change. On March 21, 1937, a march was organized in the southern city of
Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party which turned into a bloody event when the Insular Police
[22] ("a force somewhat resembling the
National Guard of the typical U.S. state" and which answered to the U.S.-appointed governor
Blanton Winship)
[23] opened fire upon, what a U.S. Congressman and others reported were, unarmed
[24] and defenseless
[25] cadets and bystanders alike,
[26][27] killing 19 and badly wounding over 200 more,
[28] many in their backs while running away.
[29][30] An
ACLU report declared it a
massacre[31] and it has since been known as the
Ponce massacre.
The internal governance changed during the latter years of the
Roosevelt–
Truman administrations, as a form of compromise led by
Luis Muñoz Marín and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor,
Jesús T. Piñero. On June 11, 1948, Piñero, signed the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) or Law 53 as it was officially known, passed by the Puerto Rican legislature which made it illegal to display the
Puerto Rican Flag, sing patriotic songs, talk of independence and to fight for the liberation of the island. It resembled the anti-communist
Smith Law passed in the United States.
[32]Commonwealth
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to elect democratically their own
governor. Luis Muñoz Marín was elected during the 1948 general elections, becoming the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico. In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81-600) which allowed for a democratic
referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution.
[33] This Act left unchanged all the articles under the Jones Act of 1917 that regulated the relationships between Puerto Rico and the United States.
[34]On October 30, 1950,
Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico. The most notable occurred in
Jayuya and
Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the
Jayuya Uprising, the United States declared
martial law and attacked Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers. The
Utuado Uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists
Griselio Torresola and
Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President
Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, being released in 1979. Don Pedro Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in
Atlanta, Georgia, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
[35]The
Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952, on the anniversary of the arrival of U.S. troops to Puerto Rico in 1898, until then an annual Puerto Rico holiday. Puerto Rico adopted the name of
Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as
Commonwealth, for its
body politic.
[36][37] The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, currency, postal service,
foreign affairs, military defense,
communications,
labor relations, the
environment,
commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others.
[38][39]During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to
Operación Manos a la Obra ("
Operation Bootstrap"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal, which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, and it is the world's leading pharmaceutical manufacturing center.
[40] Yet it still struggles to define its political status. Three plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status but no changes have been attained. Support for the pro-statehood party,
Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP), and the pro-commonwealth party,
Partido Popular Democrático (PPD), remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party, the
Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño (PIP), usually receives 3-5% of the electoral votes.
[citation needed]Government and politics
South view of the Capitol, home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico
The
judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court of Puerto Rico. The legal system is a mix of the
civil law and the
common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years.
.^ Judges of both courts are appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate.- http://www.worldalmanacforkids.com/WAKI-ViewArticle.aspx?pin=wwwwak-432&article_id=777&chapter_id=15&chapter_title=United_States&article_title=Puerto_Rico 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.worldalmanacforkids.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- Puerto Rico 28 January 2010 0:42 UTC www.caribbeantown.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate.- Puerto Rico Property For Sale, Beachfront Real Estate In Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Properties 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC puertoricopropertylocator.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The governor, with the consent of the legislature, appoints the heads of the commonwealths executive departments.
As Puerto Rico is not an independent country, it hosts no
embassies. It is host, however, to
consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the
Americas and Europe.
[46] Most consulates are located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78
municipalities at the second level.
Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of
Mayagüez.
[47]Municipalities are subdivided into wards or
barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a
mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town"), was founded first, in 1521,
San Germán in 1570,
Coamo in 1579,
Arecibo in 1614,
Aguada in 1692 and
Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was
Florida in 1971.
[48]Political status
Puerto Rico is an "unincorporated territory" of the United States which according to the U.S. Supreme Court's
Insular Cases is "a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States."
[49] Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress’ plenary powers under the
territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution.
[50] U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a
state of the American Union and has no voting representative in the U.S. Congress. Because of the establishment of the Federal Relations Act of 1950, all federal laws that are "not locally inapplicable" are automatically the law of the land in Puerto Rico.
[51][52] In 1907, the
U.S. Supreme Court, in
Grafton v.
United States[53], Justice Harlan clarified the meaning of
plenary powers: "'The government of a state derives its powers from the people of the state, whereas the government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States'...The Court thus seems to equate plenary power to exclusive power. The U.S. government could exert over the territory power that it could not exercise over the state...This power, however, is not absolute, for it is restrained by some then-undefined
fundamental rights possessed by anyone subject to the authority of the U.S. government."
[54]Since 1917, people born in Puerto Rico are
U.S. citizens. However, federal electoral law does not grant a vote to any citizen who does not live in, or qualify as an absentee resident in, one of the fifty states or the
District of Columbia. Thus, people who have always lived in Puerto Rico cannot vote in federal elections, but people born in Puerto Rico and living in a state or in DC can vote.
See also: Voting rights in Puerto RicoEstado Libre Asociado
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes" or "no", on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would suppose continued United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The
Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the
body politic would be known. The purpose of Congress in the 1950 and 1952 legislation was to accord to Puerto Rico the degree of autonomy and independence normally associated with a State of the Union.
[55]On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word "
Commonwealth", meaning a "politically organized community" or "state", which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. The convention adopted a translation into Spanish of the term, inspired by the
Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) of "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA) to represent the agreement. Literally translated into English the phrase
Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State."
While the approval of the commonwealth constitution marked a historic change in the civil government for the islands, neither it, nor the public laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952, revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of Puerto Rico to the United States. This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The statutory provisions that set forth the conditions of the relationship are commonly referred to as the Federal Relations Act (FRA). While specified subsections of the FRA were "adopted in the nature of a compact", other provisions, by comparison, are excluded from the compact reference. Matters still subject to congressional authority and established pursuant to legislation include the citizenship status of residents, tax provisions, civil rights, trade and commerce, public finance, the administration of public lands controlled by the federal government, the application of federal law over navigable waters, congressional representation, and the judicial process, among others.
[56][57]In 1967, the Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a
plebiscite Act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). Claiming "foul play" and dubbing the process as illegitimate and contrary to International Law norms regarding decolonization procedures, the plebiscite was boycotted by the major pro-statehood and pro-independence parties of the time, the [Republican Party of Puerto Rico] and the Puerto Rican Independence Party, respectively. The Commonwealth option, represented by the PDP, won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, to enact legislation to address the status issue died in U.S. Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support (receiving 48.6% in 1993 and less than one percent, 0.3%, in 1998), when the "none of the above option" received the 50.3 % of the votes which was the
Popular Democratic Party sponsored choice and was the winner option. Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives; and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for “none of the above".
[58][59][60]International status
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the
United Nations approved
Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico's classification as a
non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply its full list of criteria to Puerto Rico to determine if it has achieved self-governing status. According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.
[61] It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause
[62] of the U.S. Constitution.
[61]In 1993, the
United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.
[63] In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the "
U.S. House Committee on Resources stated that PR's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government". It concluded that PR is still an unincorporated territory of the U.S. under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of PR residents of PR at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose.
[64] The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the
Insular Cases.
Within the United States
Under the
Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described as a Commonwealth and Puerto Ricans have a degree of
administrative autonomy similar to citizens of a
U.S. state. Puerto Ricans "were collectively made
U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the
Jones-Shafroth Act[65]. The act was signed into law by President
Woodrow Wilson on 2 March 1917. U.S. Federal law
8 U.S.C. § 1402, approved by President
Harry S. Truman on 27 June 1952, declared all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after 13 January 1941 to be U.S. citizens at birth and all persons born in Puerto Rico between 11 April 1899 and 12 January 1941, and meeting certain other technical requirements, and not citizens of the United States under any other Act, are declared to be citizens of the U.S. as of 13 January 1941.
[66]In addition, an April 2000
report by the
Congressional Research Service, asserts that citizens born in Puerto Rico are legally defined as
natural born citizens and are therefore eligible to be elected President, provided they meet qualifications of age and 14 years residence within the United States. According to this report, residence in Puerto Rico and U.S. territories and possessions does not qualify as residence within the United States for these purposes.
[67]Only the "
fundamental rights" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Rico, including the
Privileges and Immunities Clause (
U.S. Constitution, Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1, also known as the 'Comity Clause') that prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner, with regard to basic civil rights. The clause also embraces a right to travel, so that a citizen of one state can have privileges and immunities in any other state; this constitutional clause regarding the rights, privileges, and immunities of citizens of the United States was expressly extended to Puerto Rico by the
U.S. Congress through the federal law
48 U.S.C. § 737 and signed by President Truman in 1947.
[68][69][70]Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes the
judicial branch of the
federal government. This article was expressly extended to the
United States District Court for
the District of Puerto Rico by the U.S. Congress through Federal Law 89-571, 80 Stat. 764, signed by President
Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. After that date, judges appointed to the Puerto Rico federal district court have been Article III judges appointed under the Constitution of the United States. In addition in 1984 one of the judges of the federal district court, Chief Judge
Juan R. Torruella, a native of the island, was appointed to serve in the
United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit with jurisdiction over Puerto Rico,
Massachusetts,
Rhode Island,
Maine, and
New Hampshire.
[75]
Federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, such as the
U.S. Attorney,
Federal Bureau of Investigation,
Homeland Security,
National Labor Relations Board,
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Safety Authority,
Environmental Protection Agency,
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
Internal Revenue Service, and
Social Security Administration. The island’s economic, commercial, and banking systems are integrated to those of the United States.
[76]President
George H. W. Bush issued a 30 November 1992 memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Puerto Rico does participate in the internal political process of both the
Democratic and
Republican parties in the U.S., accorded equal-proportional representation in both parties, and delegates from the islands vote in each party's national convention.
The U.S. Government classifies Puerto Rico as an independent taxation authority by Federal Law
48 U.S.C. § 734. Puerto Rico residents are required to pay U.S. federal taxes, import/export taxes,
[77] federal commodity taxes,
[78] social security taxes etc. The only exemption is
federal income taxes since residents pay federal
payroll taxes (
Social Security[79] and
Medicare),
[80] as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees,
[81] plus those who do business with the federal government,
[82] in addition to Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S.,
[83] and some others
[84] also pay
federal income taxes.
Because residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, they are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement, but are excluded from the
Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives less than 15% of the
Medicaid funding it would normally receive if it were a U.S. state.
[85] Yet Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
[86]
First Company of native Puerto Ricans enlisted in the American Colonial Army, 1899.
Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Since 1917 Puerto Ricans have been included in the compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect and more than 400,000 Puerto Ricans have served in the United States Armed Forces. Puerto Ricans have participated in all U.S. wars since 1898, most notably
World War I,
World War II, the
Korean and
Vietnam wars, as well as the current
Middle Eastern conflicts. Several Puerto Ricans became notable commanders, five have been awarded the
Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration in the United States, and several Puerto Ricans have attained the rank of
General or
Admiral, which requires a Presidential nomination and Senate confirmation, as is the case of judges and ambassadors.
[87] In World War II,
[88] the Korean War
[89] and the Vietnam War
[90] Puerto Ricans were the most decorated Hispanic soldiers and in some cases were the first to die in combat.
[91][92]Recent developments
The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the
United States Congress, and the
United Nations.
[93][94] In 2005 and 2007, two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status.
[61][95] Both reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress.
[61] Reactions from Puerto Rico's two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) challenged
[citation needed] the task force's report and committed to validating the current status in all international forums, including the United Nations. It also rejects
[citation needed] any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vows to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998 which included sovereignty, an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship.
[96] The New Progressive Party (PNP) supported
[citation needed] the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters.
According to a
CRS report, the recent activity regarding Puerto Rico’s political status—in Congress and on the island—suggests that action may be taken in the 111th Congress. The reports issued in 2007 and 2005 by the President’s Task Force on Puerto Rico’s Status may be the basis for reconsideration of the existing commonwealth status, as legislative developments during the 109th and 110th Congresses suggested. Agreement on the process to be used in considering the status proposals has been as elusive as agreement on the end result. Congress would have a determinative role in any resolution of the issue. The four options that appear to be most frequently discussed include continuation of the commonwealth, modification of the current commonwealth agreement, statehood, or independence. If independence, or separate national sovereignty, were selected, Puerto Rican officials might seek to negotiate a compact of free association with the United States.
[97]On June 15, 2009, the
United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.
[98]Geography
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including
Vieques,
Culebra,
Mona,
Desecheo, and
Caja de Muertos. Of these last five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other even smaller islands including
Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes
Old San Juan and
Puerta de Tierra.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km
2 (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km
2 (1,900 sq mi) is water.
[99] The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi).
[100] Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of
Jamaica,
[101] just over 18% of the size of
Hispaniola and 8% of the size of
Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
[102]Puerto Rico is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "
La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico,
Cerro de Punta 1,339 meters (4,393 ft),
[99] is located in this range. Another important peak is
El Yunque, one of the highest in the
Sierra de Luquillo at the
El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft).
[103]Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than
50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central.
[104] Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher
water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
The
Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.
[107] It is 280 km (170 mi) long.
[108] At its deepest point, named the
Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep, or about 5.2 miles.
[107]Located in the
tropics, Puerto Rico has an average temperature of 82.4 °F (28 °C) throughout the year. Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons.
.^ In the mountains, the weather is considerably cooler than anywhere else on the Island.- Puerto Rico: Weather & When to Go - TripAdvisor 25 September 2009 3:58 UTC www.tripadvisor.com [Source type: General]
^ The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island.- Puerto Rico Property For Sale, Beachfront Real Estate In Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Properties 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC puertoricopropertylocator.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The coolest temperatures on the island exist in the interior mountains.
The
Hurricane season spans from June to November. The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been 39 °F (4 °C), registered in
Aibonito.
[109]Species
endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants, 16 birds and 39
amphibians/
reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.
[110] The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the
Coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, and from which it gets its name. Most
Coquí species (13 of 17) live in the
El Yunque National Forest, a
tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered
Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km
2 (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve
[111] contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
Administrative divisions
Puerto Rico's municipalities
As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first order administrative divisions as defined by the
U.S. Government, but there are 78
municipalities at the secondary level which function as counties. Municipalities are further subdivided into
barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a
mayor and a municipal legislature elected for four year terms.
The first municipality (previously called "town") of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established,
Coamo (1570) and
San Germán (1570). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were
Arecibo (1614),
Aguada (1692) and
Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico with 30 municipalities being established in the 18th century and 34 more in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century with the last,
Florida, being founded in 1971.
[112]Economy
In the early 1900s the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was
agriculture and its main crop was sugar. In the late 1940s a series of projects codenamed
Operation Bootstrap encouraged a significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto Rico is classified as a
high income country by the
World Bank.
[113][114]Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the
Great Depression because of external investment in capital-intensive industries such as
petrochemicals,
pharmaceuticals and
technology.
.^ Read More → Experience the San Sebastian Market If you want to be part of a local experience, get up early on a Friday and head to the San Sebastian Market.- Puerto Rico Day Trips | The Best Puerto Rico Travel Guide Featuring Reviews, Tips and Inside Information 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.puertoricodaytrips.com [Source type: General]
^ Meterorologist Ernesto morales warned that for tomorrow there are similar conditions as those of today so more thunderstoms and rain are expected.- Puerto Rico - Local Reports (Caribbean Hurricane Network) 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC stormcarib.com [Source type: General]
^ Those measures included the introduction of American currency, health programs, hydroelectric power and irrigation programs, and economic policies designed to attract U.S. industry and provide more employment opportunities for native Puerto Ricans.- Puerto Rican Americans - Overview, History, Modern era, Early mainlander puerto ricans, Significant immigration waves, Settlement patterns 11 September 2009 9:37 UTC www.everyculture.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ GRT or over) 36,728 GRT/37,048 DWT by type: roll on/roll off 2 foreign-owned: 2 (United States 2) registered in other countries: 1 (2005) .- CIA - The World Factbook -- Puerto Rico 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.umsl.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The flight of industry to cheaper labor markets in Asia and Latin America and the rise of transnational business have reduced the process of industrialization.- Culture of Puerto Rico - History and ethnic relations, Urbanism, architecture, and the use of space 11 September 2009 9:37 UTC www.everyculture.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.^ Subject: Who is providing Internet services in Puerto Rico?- SOC.CULTURE.PUERTO-RICO: Introduction and FAQ 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.faqs.org [Source type: General]
^ But Puerto Rico is also subject to federal law and constitutes a district within the U.S. federal court system, with a local district court that has jurisdiction over federal law cases.- Culture of Puerto Rico - History and ethnic relations, Urbanism, architecture, and the use of space 11 September 2009 9:37 UTC www.everyculture.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ The treatment the United States affords its citizens of Puerto Rican nationality after the establishment of Puerto Rico's independence is a matter of U.S. policy, subject only to constitutional limitations.- Oversight Hearing on Issues Raised by Puerto Rico Separate Sovereignty and Independence 25 September 2009 3:58 UTC www.puertorico-herald.org [Source type: Original source]
Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the
Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930-1940, 31,000 for 1946–1950, 45,000 for 1951–1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953.
[115] As of 2003, the
U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.
[116]On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant
shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies.
.^ The first quarterly period will encompass the time from which all parties sign this Agreement through December 31, 2004.- Department of Education; Notice of written findings, compliance agreement with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rico Department of Education, and subsequent actions [OS] 15 September 2009 7:07 UTC www.ed.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Implement Public School Choice for all schools in school improvement.- Department of Education; Compliance Agreement; Notice of written findings and compliance agreement with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rico Department of Education [OS] 15 September 2009 7:07 UTC www.ed.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Although English is taught to most elementary school children in Puerto Rican public schools, Spanish remains the primary language on the island of Puerto Rico.- Puerto Rican Americans - Overview, History, Modern era, Early mainlander puerto ricans, Significant immigration waves, Settlement patterns 11 September 2009 9:37 UTC www.everyculture.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[117] On May 10, 2006, the
budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work.
.^ Municipalities have the option of imposing an additional sales tax of up to 1.5% (effective on November 15, 2006).
Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%.
[118]Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999, an estimated 5 million tourists visited the island, most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these are
cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism projects, such as the
Puerto Rico Convention Center, indicate the current strength of the tourism industry.
Puerto Ricans had
median household income of $17,741 for 2007, which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent nations of
Latvia or Poland.
[119] By comparison, the poorest state of the Union,
Mississippi, had median household income of $36,338 in 2007.
[119] Nevertheless, Puerto Rico's GDP per capita compares favorably to other independent Caribbean nations, and is one the highest in North America.
[120] Puerto Rico's public debt has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.
[121] In January 2009,
Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit,
[122] including laying off nearly 24,000 government employees. Puerto Rico's unemployment rate exceeded 15 percent in August, according to the U.S.
[123] Bureau of Labor Statistics. Some analysts said they expect the government's layoffs to propel that rate to 17 percent.
[124]Demographics
Population and racial makeup
Royal Decree of Graces, 1815.
During the 1800s hundreds of
Corsican,
French,
Lebanese,
Chinese, and
Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from
Catalonia,
Asturias,
Galicia, the
Balearic Islands,
Andalusia, and the
Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included
Irish,
Scots,
Germans,
Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during the
Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815"), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land.
.^ Yet the island was populated in 1898 by almost a million people that had developed a distinct national identity and consciousness as an integral part of the Latin American family of nations.- Puerto Rico's Decolonization - Rub�n Berr�os Mart�nez 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.independencia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ During the early 19th century, the island's most-feared pirate, Roberto Cofresi, terrorized the Puerto Rican coastline from a secret lair in a cave nearby.- Puerto Rico : Regions in Brief | Frommers.com 18 September 2009 15:51 UTC www.frommers.com [Source type: General]
^ Puerto Rico Careers: As of 2009, Puerto Rico’s population was estimated at almost four million; Puerto Rico was ranked 9th of 181 countries in a 2009 “Best Country to Start a Business” survey.- Puerto Rico Career, Job Search and Employment Resources - Careers.org 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC puerto-rico.careers.org [Source type: News]
A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gives the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 300,430 identified as
Whites; 341,015 as Free
colored; and 41,736 as
Slaves.
[125]
During the early 20th century
Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European
refugees fleeing
German–occupied Europe in the 1930s. In 1952, some Jewish families from the United States settled in Puerto Rico and founded the first synagogue. In 1959, there was an influx of Jewish emigres from Cuba, following the
Cuban Revolution.
[126]
|
Demographic distribution
Racial distribution
| Historical populations |
| Year |
Pop. |
%± |
| 1765 |
44,883 |
— |
| 1775 |
70,250 |
56.5% |
| 1800 |
155,426 |
121.2% |
| 1815 |
220,892 |
42.1% |
| 1832 |
350,051 |
58.5% |
| 1846 |
447,914 |
28.0% |
| 1860 |
583,308 |
30.2% |
| 1877 |
731,648 |
25.4% |
| 1887 |
798,565 |
9.1% |
| 1899 |
953,243 |
19.4% |
| 1910 |
1,118,012 |
17.3% |
| 1920 |
1,299,809 |
16.3% |
| 1930 |
1,543,913 |
18.8% |
| 1940 |
1,869,255 |
21.1% |
| 1950 |
2,210,703 |
18.3% |
| 1960 |
2,349,544 |
6.3% |
| 1970 |
2,712,033 |
15.4% |
| 1980 |
3,196,520 |
17.9% |
| 1990 |
3,522,037 |
10.2% |
| 2000 |
3,808,610 |
8.1% |
| The Spanish Government took the censuses from 1765 to 1887.
The United States War Department took the census in 1899. |
|
Population density, Census 2000
Recently, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from
Latin America: Argentines,
Cubans, Dominicans,
Colombians and
Venezuelans.
Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history. Starting soon after
World War II, poverty, cheap airfare and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to
New York,
New Jersey,
Massachusetts and
Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined.
Language
The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. English is taught as a second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and in universities.
[130] Particularly, the
Spanish of Puerto Rico, has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies that differentiate it from the language as spoken in other Spanish-speaking countries. This is mainly due to the influences from ancestral languages, such as those from the Taínos and Africans, and more recently from the English language influence resulting from its relationship with the United States. According to a study by the University of Puerto Rico, nine of every 10 Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico do not speak English at the advanced level
[131] and according to a brief report of the U.S. Census 2000, seven of every 10 Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico does not speak English at the advanced level.
[132]Religion
The
Roman Catholic Church has historically been the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first
dioceses in the Americas was erected in Puerto Rico in 1511.
[133] All
municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church (building), most of which are located at the town center or "
plaza". Protestantism which was suppressed under the Spanish regime has been encouraged under American rule making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional.
Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular, the
Yoruba beliefs of
Santeria and/or
Ifá, and the
Kongo-derived
Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form of
African traditional religion. In 2007,
Islam had over 5,000
Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.10% of the population
[134][135]There were eight Islamic
mosques spread throughout the island, with most Muslims living in
Rio Piedras[136][137]. Puerto Rico is also home to the largest and richest Jewish community in the Caribbean with 3,000 Jewish inhabitants. Puerto Rico is the only Caribbean island in which the
Conservative,
Reform and
Orthodox Jewish movements are represented.
[126][138]Culture
Kapok tree (
Ceiba), the national tree of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican culture is a mix of four cultures, African (from the slaves),
Taíno (Amerindians), Spanish, and more recently, North American. From Africans, the Puerto Ricans have obtained the "
bomba and
plena", a type of music and dance including percussions and
maracas. From the Amerindians (Taínos), they kept many names for their municipalities, foods, musical instruments like the
güiro and
maracas.
.^ However, they have adopted other elements of African and local origin.- SOC.CULTURE.PUERTO-RICO: Introduction and FAQ 10 January 2010 4:04 UTC www.faqs.org [Source type: General]
From the Spanish they received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. From the United States they received the English language, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903,
University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial", a smaller organism that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Much of the Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the country as a whole, Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other cultures with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable. However, the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico.
[139][140]The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the
Reinita mora or
Puerto Rican Spindalis (a type of bird), the
Flor de Maga (a type of flower), and the
Ceiba or
Kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the
Coquí, a small frog genus. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "
jíbaro", the "countryman", and the carite.
Sports
Boxing,
basketball, and
volleyball are considered popular sports as well.
Wilfredo Gómez and
McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the
World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include
José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, as well as three boxers that finished in third place, José Luis Vellón,
Nelson Dieppa and
McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most
boxing world champions and its the global leader in champions per capita. These include
Miguel Cotto,
Félix Trinidad,
Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others. The
Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the
International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three
FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994
Goodwill Games. August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the
United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of
National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92-73 as part of the
2004 Summer Olympics organized in
Athens, Greece.
[143]
Miscellaneous practices of this sport have experienced some success, including the "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
[144] Organized
Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the
Capitanes de Arecibo and
AND1's
Mixtape Tour Team. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including
Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the
Harlem Globetrotters.
[145] Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, made history in 1995, when he became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the
Harlem Globetrotters.
[146]Education
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels — Primary (elementary school grades 1-6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7-12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.
[147] According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels, students may attend either
public or
private schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools
[148] and 569 private schools in the island.
[citation needed]Transportation
Tren Urbano at Bayamón Station
Puerto Rico has 9
ports in different cities across the main island. The
San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively.
[150] The second largest port is the
Port of the Americas in Ponce currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million 20 ft. containers (
TEUs) per year.
[151]See also
Notes and references
- ^ Nancy Morris (1995), Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity, Praeger/Greenwood, p. 62, ISBN 0275952282, http://books.google.com/books?id=vyQDYqz2kFsC&pg=RA1-PA62&lpg=RA1-PA62&dq=%22puerto+rico%22+official+language+1993&source=web&ots=AZKLran6u3&sig=8fkQ9gwM0B0kwVYMNtXr-_9dnro
- ^ CIA World Factbook Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ a b U.S. Department of State. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty
- ^ Allatson, Paul. Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies, p. 47. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1405102500.
- ^ Dictionary: Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean Retrieved: February 21, 2008. (Based on the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico", 2nd. edition. Ed. Cayetano Coll y Toste. Publisher: Ediciones Latinoamericanas, S.A., 1972.).
- ^ Abbad y Lasierra, Iñigo. Historia Geográfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico.
- ^ Cheryl Mahaffy (2006-01-30). "Vieques Island: What lies beneath". Edmonton Journal. http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7.
- ^ 500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others. The Newberry library.
- ^ "History of Puerto Rico". http://welcome.topuertorico.org/history.shtml. Retrieved 2009-11-16.
- ^ Today, Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas, or people from Borinquen.
- ^ Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor but he never arrived on the island.
- ^ "History of Smallpox - Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services.
- ^ Mari, Brenda A. (April 22, 2005). "The Legacy of Añasco: Where the Gods Come to Die". Puerto Rico Herald. http://web.archive.org/web/20060427181624/http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues2/2005/vol09n16/PRSST0916-en.shtml. Retrieved 2006-03-01.
- ^ Puerto Rico. Russell Schimmer, GSP, Yale University.
- ^ Real Cédula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros".
- ^ "USA Seizes Puerto Rico". History of Puerto Rico. solboricua.com. 2000. http://www.solboricua.com/history2.htm#usa.
- ^ Magaly Rivera. "History". topuertorico.org. http://www.topuertorico.org/history4.shtml. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
- ^ "Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War". The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War. Hispanic Division, Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html.
- ^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. December 10, 1898. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/spain/sp1898.htm.
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803-1898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 166, 178. "U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971) (codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)")
- ^ "Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe" (in Spanish). Red Sísmica de Puerto Rico. http://redsismica.uprm.edu/spanish/tsunami/index.php. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
- ^ Law Library Microform Consortium
- ^ Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission, 70p, np, May 22, 1937.
- ^ Law Library.
- ^ Don Luis Sanchez Frasquieri, President of the Ponce Rotary Club at the time.
- ^ The "police riot" shot at the demonstrators as well as the crowd standing by.
- ^ US Congressman Vito Macartonio.
- ^ Over 200 were wounded.
- ^ Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders running away.
- ^ Five Years of Tyranny, Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives. The entire speech is contained in the Congressional Record of August 14, 1939. It is reported in the Cong. Rec., and various other publications elsewhere, that among those shot in their backs was a 7-year-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who "was killed through the back while running to a nearby church"
- ^ Report of the ACLU as echoed by U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio.
- ^ Puerto Rican History.
- ^ Act of July 3, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319.
- ^ View of Congress, the Courts and the Federal Government.
- ^ García, Marvin. "Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos". National-Louis University. http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm. Retrieved 2006-04-28.
- ^ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in Spanish (Spanish).
- ^ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in English (English translation).
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. Ed. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Cloth, ISBN 0-7425-4983-6. Paper, ISBN 0-7425-4984-4.) pp. 166-167.
- ^ "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service CRS RL32933. United States Congressional Research Service. 2000-05-17. http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Political_Status_of_Puerto_Rico:_Options_for_Congress%2C_May_29%2C_2008. Retrieved 2009-12-03.
- ^ Puerto Rico: The Last Colony By Héctor Reyes. International Socialist Review. Online Edition. Issue 3, Winter 1997. Retrieved November 5, 2009.
- ^ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Article I, Section 2
- ^ U.S. Department of State. Foreign Affairs Manual: Volume 7 - Consular Affairs (7 FAM 1120) Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions. Pages 1-3.
- ^ Rules of the House of Representatives.
- ^ Puerto Rico Primary Election Report Notice.
- ^ 2008 Presidential Primary Dates and Candidates Filling Datelines for Ballot Access.
- ^ Consulados. Link to Puerto Rico.
- ^ Mayagüez. Enciclopedia de Puerto Rico.
- ^ LinktoPR.com - Fundación de los Pueblos.
- ^ Downes v. Bidwell 182 U.S. 244, 287 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922).
- ^ U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States...").
- ^ 39 Stat. 954, 48 USCA 734 48 U.S.C. § 734. "The statutory laws of the United States not locally inapplicable, except as hereinbefore or hereinafter otherwise provided, shall have the same force and effect in Porto Rico as in the United Status…".
- ^ "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service CRS RL32933. United States Congressional Research Service. 2000-05-17. http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Political_Status_of_Puerto_Rico:_Options_for_Congress%2C_May_29%2C_2008. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
- ^ 206 U.S. 333 (1907)
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803-1898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 168.
- ^ Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan, Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Page 25, The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico, http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf, retrieved 2010-02-06
- ^ Bea, Keith (May 25, 2005), Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background, Options, and Issues in the 109th Congress, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, pp. 5–6, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf, retrieved 2008-10-15 .
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