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Study guide

Up to date as of January 14, 2010

From Wikiversity

See also


Genealogy

Up to date as of February 01, 2010

From Familypedia

For other uses, see Race.
A series of articles on
Race
Main topics
Social
Related
.
The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of characteristics and beliefs about common ancestry.^ An Entity in Data Space: dbpedia.org The term race or racial group usually refers to the categorization of humans into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of heritable characteristics.
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of characteristics and beliefs about common ancestry.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The term race or racial group usually refers to the categorization of humans into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of heritable characteristics.
  • Race - MSN Encarta 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC encarta.msn.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Race - ninemsn Encarta 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC au.encarta.msn.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 [1] .The most widely used human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color, facial features and hair texture), and self-identification.^ The most obvious of these is skin color.
  • RACIAL SKIN COLOR - How did different human skin colors come about? - ChristianAnswers.Net 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.christiananswers.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Both questions are based on self-identification.
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The most obvious of these is skin color .
  • Where did the human races come from? - ChristianAnswers.Net 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.christiananswers.net [Source type: Original source]

 [2]
.Conceptions of race, as well as specific ways of grouping races, vary by culture and over time, and are often controversial for scientific as well as social and political reasons.^ Race is a social idea, not a scientific concept.
  • In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood - How Did Human “Races” Develop? 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.creationscience.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Conceptions of race, as well as specific ways of grouping races, vary by culture and over time, and are often controversial for scientific as well as social and political reasons.
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The controversy ultimately revolves around whether or not the concept of race is biologically warranted; the ways in which political correctness might fuel either the affirmation or the denial of race; and the degree to which perceived differences in ability and achievement, categorized on the basis of race, are a product of inherited traits or environmental, social and cultural factors.
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 The controversy ultimately revolves around whether or not races are natural types or socially constructed, and the degree to which observed differences in ability and achievement, categorized on the basis of race, are a product of inherited (i.e. genetic) traits or environmental, social and cultural factors.
.Some argue that although "race" is a valid taxonomic concept in other species, it cannot be applied to humans.^ Some other race; White .
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Some other race; Asian .
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Some argue that although "race" is a valid taxonomic concept in other species, it cannot be applied to humans.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 [3] .Many scientists have argued that race definitions are imprecise, arbitrary, derived from custom, have many exceptions, have many gradations, and that the numbers of races delineated vary according to the culture making the racial distinctions; thus they reject the notion that any definition of race pertaining to humans can have taxonomic rigour and validity.^ Thus, the racial schemes of his time varied from 2-63 named races.
  • What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC raceandgenomics.ssrc.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ They have a distinct culture and social environment.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Culture even creates the notions of "race."
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [4] .Today most scientists study human genotypic and phenotypic variation using concepts such as "population" and "clinal gradation". Many anthropologists contend that while the features on which racial categorizations are made may be based on genetic factors, the idea of race itself, and actual divisions of persons into groups based on selected hereditary features, are social constructs.^ Races as a social construction .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The external features are the ones that people tend to associate with racial variation and use to categorize individuals into one or another race.
  • The anthropological perspective on race: an historical overview 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC aabss.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It contends instead that race is totally constructed (created) by environmental factors (i.e., political and social factors).

 [5][6][7][8][9][10]

Contents

History

Main article: Historical definitions of race
.The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution, temperament, and mental abilities.^ Main article: Historical definitions of race The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or species , sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution, temperament, and mental abilities.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ See also: Historical definitions of race .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Racialization: the historical development of race .
  • Michael Omi and Howard Winant on racial formation 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC aad.english.ucsb.edu [Source type: Original source]

 .These races were not conceived as being related with each other, but formed a hierarchy of inherent value called the Great Chain of Being with Europeans usually at the top.^ These races were not conceived as being related with each other, but formed a hierarchy of inherent value called the Great Chain of Being with Europeans usually at the top.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ According to Nazi racial theory, the races were arranged in a strict hierarchy, with blond, blue-eyed Northern Europeans, known as "Aryans" or "Nordic types," at the top and the Jews at the bottom.
  • One Thousand Children: Georgia's Role in the Rescue of Jewish Children 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.thebreman.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Not only were the colour of the skin and eyes, the colour and form of the hair, and the form of the nose used as criteria of these four divisions, but the different temperaments of the four races were also distinguished, other criteria being their peculiarities of character, mode of dress, and whether the individual races were governed by customs, laws, beliefs, or arbitrary rule.
.The word "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, were products of European imperialism and colonization during the age of exploration.^ Race can be associated with many things.
  • Artifact & Artifice: Cultural Studies of the Textual City: April 2008 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC artifactandartifice.blogspot.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The word "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, were products of European imperialism and colonization during the age of exploration .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ And even when it comes to biology -- i.e., taxonomy along genetic lines -- the word "race" is not precise enough: With the advent of population genetics, establishing gene frequencies in specific populations, many workers have come to prefer the word population for taxonomic purposes.
  • In the Public Interest: Science: The Construct We Call "Race" 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC www.afn.org [Source type: Original source]

 (Smedley 1999)
.Classical civilizations from Rome to China tended to invest much more importance in familial or tribal affiliation than with one's physical appearance (Dikötter 1992; Goldenberg 2003).^ Classical civilizations from Rome to China tended to invest much more importance in familial or tribal affiliation than with one's physical appearance (Dikötter 1992; Goldenberg 2003).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Formation of a new race takes place when, over several generations, individuals in one group reproduce more frequently among themselves than they do with individuals in other groups.
  • Race as a Biological Concept 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.prometheism.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The picture that begins to emerge from this and other analyses of human genetic variation is that variation tends to be geographically structured, such that most individuals from the same geographic region will be more similar to one another than to individuals from a distant region.
  • in8snotes 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC in8sworld.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Ancient Greek and Roman authors also attempted to explain and categorize visible biological differences among peoples known to them.^ Ancient Greek and Roman authors also attempted to explain and categorize visible biological differences among peoples known to them.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ How does each author frame the differences between people?

 ^ The Greek exposure to different races was essentially limited to the different Caucasian peoples of the Mediterranean world.
.Medieval models of race mixed Classical ideas with the notion that humanity as a whole was descended from Shem, Ham and Japheth, the three sons of Noah, producing distinct Semitic (Asian), Hamitic (African), and Japhetic (European) peoples.^ Medieval models of race mixed Classical ideas with the notion that humanity as a whole was descended from Shem , Ham and Japheth , the three sons of Noah , producing distinct Semitic ( Asiatic ), Hamitic ( African ), and Japhetic ( Indo-European ) peoples.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The Northern Europeans are my people and my race.

 ^ How could all human races come from Noah, his three sons and their wives?
  • NBC BROADCASTS "NOAH'S ARK" MINISERIES 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.rae.org [Source type: General]
.During the Age of Discovery, a set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.^ A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual , behavioral , and moral qualities.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ During the Age of Discovery, a set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual , behavioral , and moral qualities.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Consistent physical distinctions between groups of people from different areas, some of which can be readily observed (skin color, average build, etc.

 .(Banton 1977) In various cultures, brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world, and racial prejudice against Africans also exists today in non-colonised countries such as China and Japan.^ The perpetuation of racial, ethnic, or cultural dominance of some groups over others.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ What role do racial or ethnic groups play?

 ^ IQ differences between different racial and ethnic groups....
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The first scientific attempts to classify humans by categories of race date from the 17th century, along with the development of European imperialism and colonization around the world.^ The first scientific attempts to classify humans by categories of race date from the 17th century, along with the development of European imperialism and colonization around the world.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The Nineteenth century was the era of Europeans imperialism.
  • The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.hindunet.org [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Further information: Race (historical definitions) , Scientific racism , Craniofacial anthropometry The first scientific attempts to classify humans by categories of race date from the 17th century.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 The first post-Classical published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be François Bernier's Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684.
.As time progressed, Darwin's theory of evolution was applied to races.^ As time progressed, Darwin's theory of evolution was applied to races.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ You can read in every textbook on evolution that geographic races of animals, when isolated from other races of their species, may in due time become new species.
  • Ernst Mayr on Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.goodrumj.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ But would the same sanctions apply if you questioned the Theory of Evolution?
  • Fading Freedom of Speech 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.sovereignlife.com [Source type: Original source]

 .By this time, anthropologists considered humans to be related to each other.^ By this time, anthropologists considered humans to be related to each other.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Anthropologists of the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, on the other hand, believed that they were combating racism by openly discussing race and by teaching courses on human races and racism.
  • NOVA Online | Mystery of the First Americans | A proponent's perspective 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.pbs.org [Source type: Original source]
  • Aryan Unity - Does Race Exist? 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.aryanunity.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Some consider them so great that they regard the varieties of the human race as distinct species; others maintain the unity of the human race, looking upon the differences as not sufficiently great to constitute different species.

 .The word "race," interpreted to mean common descent, was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French rasse (1512), from Italian razza, which may have been derived from the Latin word generatio (a begetting).^ The word "race," interpreted to mean common descent , was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French rasse (1512), from Italian razza , which may have been derived from the Latin word generatio (a begetting).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The billion or so of the world's people of largely European descent have a set of genetic variants in common that are collectively rare in everyone else; they are a race.

 ^ It is unfortunate that no Scandinavian (Swedish, Danish, or Norwegian), Slavic, or Arab populations were included in this study, and that the English, German, and Italian groups were not divided into regions.
  • TOQ-Richard McCulloch-Race: Reality and Delial-Vol 2 No 4 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.theoccidentalquarterly.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The etymology can be further traced back to Latin gens (clan, stock, people) and genus (birth, descent, origin, race, stock, family) which in turn comes from the Greek γένος (race, stock, or family).^ The etymology can be further traced back to Latin gens (clan, stock, people) and genus (birth, descent, origin, race, stock, family) which in turn comes from the Greek γένος (race, stock, or family).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The billion or so of the world's people of largely European descent have a set of genetic variants in common that are collectively rare in everyone else; they are a race.

 ^ I can turn on the television or open to the front page of the paper and   see people of my race widely and positively represented.
  • Social Psychology--Racism 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.csupomona.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.This late origin for the English and French terms is consistent with the thesis that the concept of "race" as defining a very small number of groups of human beings based on lineage dates from the time of Columbus.^ Race (classification of human beings) .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The original content was at Race (classification of human beings) .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ This late origin for the English and French terms is consistent with the thesis that the concept of "race" as defining a very small number of groups of human beings based on lineage dates from the time of Columbus .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Older concepts that were also at least partly based on common descent, such as nation and tribe, entail a much larger number of groupings.^ Older concepts that were also at least partly based on common descent, such as nation and tribe , entail a much larger number of groupings.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ This late origin for the English and French terms is consistent with the thesis that the concept of "race" as defining a very small number of groups of human beings based on lineage dates from the time of Columbus .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Obscure, perhaps, but not too obscure to have a definition: "I. A group of persons, animals, or plants, connected by common descent or origin.
  • In the Public Interest: Science: The Construct We Call "Race" 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC www.afn.org [Source type: Original source]
.In the 19th century a number of natural scientists wrote on race: Georges Cuvier, Charles Darwin, Alfred Wallace, Francis Galton, James Cowles Pritchard, Louis Agassiz, Charles Pickering, and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach.^ In the 19th century, several natural scientists wrote on race: Georges Cuvier , Charles Darwin , Alfred Wallace , Francis Galton , James Cowles Pritchard , Louis Agassiz , Charles Pickering , and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In the 19th century a number of natural scientists wrote on race: Georges Cuvier , Charles Darwin , Alfred Wallace , Francis Galton , James Cowles Pritchard , Louis Agassiz , Charles Pickering , and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Although Carolus Linnaeus was the first to develop a biological classification system, it was German scientist Johann Blumenbach who first introduced a race-based classification of humans, which established a framework for analyzing race and racial differences for the next hundred years.

 .As the science of anthropology took shape in the 19th century, European and American scientists increasingly sought explanations for the behavioral and cultural differences they attributed to groups (Stanton 1960).^ As the science of anthropology took shape in the 19th century, European and American scientists increasingly sought explanations for the behavioral and cultural differences they attributed to groups (Stanton 1960).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ We brought in American scholars from a broad spectrum of disciplines, from philosophy to social sciences and population genetics, from anthropology to basic science and government.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists, influenced by Enlightenment philosophers, developed a system of categorizing things in nature, including humans.

Modern race debate

Main article: Race debate
.There is considerable discussion and controversy surrounding modern definitions of "race."^ Main article: Race debate There is considerable discussion and controversy surrounding modern definitions of "race."
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In modern society there is definitely a class ) )system based on money, fashion and popular meritous behaviour.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

 ^ There is a fair amount of disagreement regarding definitions of "race" among the debaters.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0604 (April, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

 .There are various theories and models.^ There are various theories and models.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Some models are based the evolution of humans and its potential relation to subspecies, while some relate race to genetics.^ Models of human evolution .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Alternative models for the evolution of the human races: Multiregional and single origin.
  • Race, genetics, and human reproductive strategies 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some models are based the evolution of humans and its potential relation to subspecies , while some relate race to genetics .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Questions about the relevance of race in the biology of humans is an ongoing debate.^ Questions about the relevance of race in the biology of humans is an ongoing debate.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It is about the HUMAN race.
  • Human Race - Associated Content - Topic - associatedcontent.com 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.associatedcontent.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ When recent studies reveal that the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals are outside the range of variation seen among modern humans, that is evidence that Neanderthals are not just a different race of humans, but a different species of human (although there is still some debate about that).
  • Odd Darwin Comment [Archive] - ChristianWebsite Forum 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.christianwebsite.com [Source type: Original source]

Current views across disciplines

.One result of debates over the meaning and validity of the concept "race" is that the current literature across different disciplines regarding human variation lacks consensus, though within some fields, such as biology, there is strong consensus.^ This leads to such statements as "there are no human races."
  • Ernst Mayr on Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.goodrumj.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ AM Yes, there are different human races.
  • Are there different human races [Archive] - Harmony Central Musician Community Forums 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC acapella.harmony-central.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ One result of debates over the meaning and validity of the concept "race" is that the current literature across different disciplines regarding human variation lacks consensus , though within some fields, such as biology, there is strong consensus.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Some studies use the word race in its early essentialist taxonomic sense.^ The word race is used in a variety of ways.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Some studies use the word race in its early essentialist taxonomic sense.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The terms race, ethnicity and ancestry are often used interchangeably, but some have also drawn distinctions.
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 .Many others still use the term race, but use it to mean a population, clade, or haplogroup.^ Many others still use the term race, but use it to mean a population, clade , or haplogroup .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ For other uses, see Race .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Because the concept of race has been confused so thoroughly with our terrible history of racism, many avoid the term altogether.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Others eschew the concept of race altogether, and use the concept of population as a less problematical unit of analysis.^ Others eschew the concept of race altogether, and use the concept of population as a less problematical unit of analysis.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ For other uses, see Race .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Because the concept of race has been confused so thoroughly with our terrible history of racism, many avoid the term altogether.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.In the 19th century, race was a central concept of anthropology.^ One prime example is the work of Arthur de Gobineau, author of the seminal work of 19th century racism, Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0604 (April, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

 ^ The 19th century saw attempts to change race from a taxonomic to a biological concept.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ However, the concept of race may be useful in forensic anthropology.
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 .In 1866, James Hunt, the founder of the Anthropological Society of London, declared that anthropology’s primary truth “is the existence of well-marked psychological and moral distinctions in the different races of men.” However, this view was largely rejected by the community of social sciences in the second half of the 20th century.^ In 1866, James Hunt , the founder of the Anthropological Society of London , declared that anthropology’s primary truth “is the existence of well-marked psychological and moral distinctions in the different races of men.” However, this view was largely rejected by the community of social sciences in the second half of the 20th century.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Anybody should be able to enjoy the benefits of our liberal society in spite of differences of religion, race, or socioeconomic status.
  • Ernst Mayr on Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.goodrumj.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ The investigation of physical differences is the task of anthropology (the science of man), whose duty it is to establish numerically in the most exact manner possible the conspicuous differences between the fundamental types and between the mixed races arising from them.
.Scientific support for the Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid terminology of racial classification has diminished over the past century.^ Racial Classification in the 20th Century .
  • Race - MSN Encarta 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC encarta.msn.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Scientific support for the Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid terminology of racial classification has diminished over the past century.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Yet anyone can see that there are certain relatively clear differences between a typical Caucasoid and a typical Mongoloid or a typical Negroid.
  • Cavalli-Sforza on Human Races 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.goodrumj.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .These terms originally denoted skull types and sprang from the technique known as craniofacial anthropometry, but these disciplines have been abandoned by the mainstream scientific community.^ These terms originally denoted skull types and sprang from the technique known as craniofacial anthropometry , but these disciplines have been abandoned by the mainstream scientific community.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Varied and possibly inconsistent definitional criteria, such as geographic origin, cultural origin, cultural identification and affiliation, community recognition, and race itself, are used to describe the terms.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ These skulls recall, on one hand, the form of the skull of the homo alpinus , and, on the other, the structure of the skull of the later lake-dwellers and of the Mediterranean type.

 .Today they have only two common uses.^ Today they have only two common uses.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In the context in which they use the term, "white" refers only to the European peoples, and especially the Northern European peoples.

 ^ I can think of only two valid uses for IQ tests: First, they might identify individual areas where a child needs help.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .They are used in forensic anthropology as an indicator of ethnicity of skeletal remains.^ They are used in forensic anthropology as an indicator of ethnicity of skeletal remains.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Forensic science supports the reality of the human races, and can racially identify race from skeletal remains with great accuracy, as described by forensic scientist George Gill: [Note #3] .

 ^ However, the concept of race may be useful in forensic anthropology.
  • About: http://dbpedia.org/resource/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC dbpedia.org [Source type: Academic]

 .And they can be used as euphemisms for making racially based distinctions that are now regarded as being racist and baseless by mainstream culture.^ And they can be used as euphemisms for making racially based distinctions that are now regarded as being racist and baseless by mainstream culture.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Liberal eugenics is the study and use of genetic engineering to improve human beings, specifically in regards to biological characteristics and capacities.
  • lifeissues.net | "Gnostic Soup": Pagan fertility gods, IVF, Hollywood, cloning/genetic engineering, bioethics, transhumanism, libertarians, drugs, eugenics, etc. 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.lifeissues.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ You forgot another segment of Humanity....Americanoid or commonly called Native American:confused: ,it's now being put in use in ethno-study categorizing.
  • Are there different human races [Archive] - Harmony Central Musician Community Forums 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC acapella.harmony-central.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.Since 1932, some college textbooks introducing physical anthropology have increasingly come to reject race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race.^ The concept of 'race' has no validity .
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Since 1932, some college textbooks introducing physical anthropology have increasingly come to reject race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ "Since 1932, some college textbooks introducing physical anthropology have increasingly come to reject race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .According to one academic journal entry, where 78 percent of the articles in the 1931 Journal of Physical Anthropology employed these or nearly synonymous terms reflecting a bio-race paradigm, only 36 percent did so in 1965, and just 28 percent did in 1996.[11] The American Anthropological Association, drawing on biological research, currently holds that "The concept of race is a social and cultural construction.^ According to one academic journal entry, where 78 percent of the articles in the 1931 Journal of Physical Anthropology employed these or nearly synonymous terms reflecting a bio-race paradigm, only 36 percent did so in 1965, and just 28 percent did in 1996.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Races as a social construction .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These differences exist because race is a cultural construct.

 . . . .Race simply cannot be tested or proven scientifically," and that, "It is clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups.^ You continue by grouping similar populations, and separating distinct populations or groups of populations as races or groups of races.
  • Resources: Database: Jared Diamond, "Race without Color," Discover 15 no. 11 (November 1994) 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.learntoquestion.com [Source type: Original source]
  • Race Without Color 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC xroads.virginia.edu [Source type: Original source]

 ^ It is clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups.
  • Classical Values :: "Gender." If it ain't fixed, let's break it! 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.classicalvalues.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Humans fail the test for biological races (Templeton, 1998).

 .The concept of 'race' has no validity .^ The concept of 'race' has no validity .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The concept of `race' has no validity .
  • Classical Values :: "Gender." If it ain't fixed, let's break it! 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.classicalvalues.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ S.H. Katz, who led the study, said, "The biological concept of race is untenable and has no legitimate place in biological science."
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 . . in the human species".[6]
.In an ongoing debate, some geneticists argue that race is neither a meaningful concept nor a useful heuristic device,[12] and even that genetic differences among groups are biologically meaningless,[13] on the grounds that more genetic variation exists within such races than among them, and that racial traits overlap without discrete boundaries.^ This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them."
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ What is the function of racially variable traits?
  • Resources: Database: Jared Diamond, "Race without Color," Discover 15 no. 11 (November 1994) 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.learntoquestion.com [Source type: Original source]
  • Race Without Color 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC xroads.virginia.edu [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Race and ethnicity are biological concepts that can be used interchangeably.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [14] .Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful,[15] that these categories correspond with clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data,[16] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.^ Race thus refers both to populations and to the phenotypes that are associated with these populations and by which they are identified.
  • TOQ-Richard McCulloch-Race: Reality and Delial-Vol 2 No 4 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.theoccidentalquarterly.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • race-realityanddenial 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.racialcompact.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful, [ 72 ] that these categories correspond to clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data , [ 73 ] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful, [15] that these categories correspond with clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data , [16] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 [17]
.In February, 2001, the editors of the medical journal Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked authors to no longer use "race" as an explanatory variable and not to use obsolescent terms.^ In February, 2001, the editors of the medical journal Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked authors to no longer use race as an explanatory variable and not to use obsolescent terms.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ What happened to them, that caused them to no longer be races?

 ^ "Use of the Terms Race and Ethnicity," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Volume 155, February 2001.
  • PA-03-057: SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF RACE AND ETHNICITY IN THE UNITED STATES 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC grants1.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]

 .Some other peer-reviewed journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine and the American Journal of Public Health, have made similar endeavours.^ Some other peer-reviewed journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine and the American Journal of Public Health, have made similar endeavours.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Some other peer-reviewed journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine and the American Journal of Public Health , have made similar endeavours.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ American Journal of Public Health , 88 (1998), 1303-1307.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [18] .Furthermore, the National Institutes of Health recently issued a program announcement for grant applications through February 1, 2006, specifically seeking researchers who can investigate and publicize among primary care physicians the detrimental effects on the nation's health of the practice of medical racial profiling using such terms.^ Schwartz RS: Racial profiling in medical research.
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Not as useful in health research as identification of the specific mixtures.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Those who use such terms are misusing language.
  • The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.hindunet.org [Source type: Original source]

 .The program announcement quoted the editors of one journal as saying that, "analysis by race and ethnicity has become an analytical knee-jerk reflex."^ The program announcement quoted the editors of one journal as saying that, "analysis by race and ethnicity has become an analytical knee-jerk reflex."
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ He says quote.."Race is a social concept.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The editors of the Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine were particularly critical of past uses of race and ethnicity in medical research, stating that "[a]nalysis by race and ethnicity has become an analytical knee-jerk reflex."
  • PA-03-057: SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF RACE AND ETHNICITY IN THE UNITED STATES 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC grants1.nih.gov [Source type: Academic]

 [19]
A survey, taken in 1985 (Lieberman et al. 1992), asked 1,200 American anthropologists how many disagree with the following proposition: "There are biological races in the species Homo sapiens." The responses were:
.The figure for physical anthropologists at PhD granting departments was slightly higher, rising from 41% to 42%, with 50% agreeing.^ The figure for physical anthropologists at PhD granting departments was slightly higher, rising from 41% to 42%, with 50% agreeing.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Homo sapiens evolved out of Homo erectus.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ "Most physical anthropologists would agree that this human variation is not now sufficient to warrant defining separate biological races, varieties, or sub-species.

 .This survey, however, did not specify any particular definition of race (although it did clearly specify biological race within the species Homo Sapiens); it is difficult to say whether those who supported the statement thought of race in taxonomic or population terms.^ Summary of different biological definitions of "race" .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ This survey, however, did not specify any particular definition of race (although it did clearly specify biological race within the species Homo Sapiens); it is difficult to say whether those who supported the statement thought of race in taxonomic or population terms.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ This survey, however, did not specify any particular definition of race (although it did clearly specify biological race within the species Homo Sapiens ); it is difficult to say whether those who supported the statement thought of race in taxonomic or population terms.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
The same survey, taken in 1999 [21], showed the following changing results for anthropologists:
In Poland the race concept was rejected by only 25 percent of anthropologists in 2001, although: "Unlike the U.S. anthropologists, Polish anthropologists tend to regard race as a term without taxonomic value, often as a substitute for population."[22]

Summary of different definitions of race

Biological definitions of race (Long & Kittles, 2003) et al.
Concept Reference Definition
Essentialist Hooton (1926) "A great division of mankind, characterized as a group by the sharing of a certain combination of features, which have been derived from their common descent, and constitute a vague physical background, usually more or less obscured by individual variations, and realized best in a composite picture."
Taxonomic Mayr (1969) "An aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of a species, and differing taxonomically from other populations of the species."
Clade Levin (2002) Race "connotes geographic ancestry, by continent or large continental subregion" and "is used to denote continental or subcontinental clades". In "Cladistic taxonomy ... the basic taxon [is] the genealogical unit, ancestors-plus-line- (or tree) -of-descent, what according to the present analysis races are."
Population Dobzhansky (1970) "Races are genetically distinct Mendelian populations. They are neither individuals nor particular genotypes, they consist of individuals who differ genetically among themselves."
Lineage Templeton (1998) "A subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentiated due to barriers to genetic exchange that have persisted for long periods of time; that is, the subspecies must have historical continuity in addition to current genetic differentiation."

Races as a social construction

Main articles: Social interpretations of race and Racialism
.Even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent.^ Main articles: Social interpretations of race and Racialism Even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Main articles: Social interpretations of race and Racialism Even as the idea of race was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, some observers criticized the concept.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Because the concept of race has been confused so thoroughly with our terrible history of racism, many avoid the term altogether.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups emphasized that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them," as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation (Marks 1995, p.^ In Europe, the gradual transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups suggested to Blumenbach that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them" (Marks 1995, p.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ You can have either this or that, either one or the other, but not both.

 ^ In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups emphasized that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them," as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation (Marks 1995, p.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 54). .As anthropologists and other evolutionary scientists have shifted away from the language of race to the term population to talk about genetic differences, Historians, anthropologists and social scientists have re-conceptualized the term "race" as a cultural category or social construct, in other words, as a particular way that some people have of talking about themselves and others.^ Races as a social construction .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As anthropologists and other evolutionary scientists have shifted away from the language of race to the term population to talk about genetic differences, Historians , anthropologists and social scientists have re-conceptualized the term "race" as a cultural category or social construct , in other words, as a particular way that some people have of talking about themselves and others.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ We act as if we knew what we're talking about when we talk about race, and we don't."
  • In the Public Interest: Science: The Construct We Call "Race" 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC www.afn.org [Source type: Original source]

 As Stephan Palmie has recently summarized, race "is not a thing but a social relation";[7] or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, "a metonym," "a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference."[8] As such it cannot be a useful analytical concept; rather, the use of the term "race" itself must be analyzed. .Moreover, they argue that biology will not explain why or how people use the idea of race: history and social relationships will.^ Moreover, they argue that biology will not explain why or how people use the idea of race: history and social relationships will.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The billion or so of the world's people of largely European descent have a set of genetic variants in common that are collectively rare in everyone else; they are a race.

 ^ Instead of trying to classify human diversity into discrete races, scientists focus on why variation occurs and on explaining specific biological traits.
  • Race - MSN Encarta 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC encarta.msn.com [Source type: Academic]

 .For example, the fact that in many parts of the United States, categories such as Hispanic or Latino are viewed to constitute a race, while others view "Hispanic" as referring to an ethnic group, has more to do with the changing position of Hispanics in U.S. society, especially in the context of the civil rights movement and the debate over immigration.^ For example, the fact that in many parts of the United States, categories such as Hispanic or Latino are viewed to constitute a race, while others view "Hispanic" as referring to an ethnic group , has more to do with the changing position of Hispanics in U.S. society, especially in the context of the civil rights movement and the debate over immigration .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ I do not know what King's real thoughts were during the earlier, legal-equality phase of the civil rights movement, and it doesn't much matter what they were in any case.
  • How the 1964 Civil Rights Act made racial group entitlements inevitable 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.amnation.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Because regional usage of the terms differs -- Hispanic is commonly used in the eastern portion of the United States, whereas Latino is commonly used in the western portion -- this change may contribute to improved response rates.
  • Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Dataon Race and Ethnicity 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.census.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Social issues of race

Main article: Social interpretations of race

Racism

Main articles: Racism and Racial segregation
.Racism has many definitions, the most common and widely accepted being the belief that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races.^ Main articles: Racism and Racial segregation Racism has many definitions, the most common and widely accepted being the belief that members of one race are intrinsically superior or inferior to members of other races.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the belief that one's particular race is superior to the others.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Racism infers an assumption of racial superiority and a harmful intent, whereas separatists sometimes prefer the term racialism, indicating a strong interest in matters of race without a necessary inference of superiority or a desire to be harmful to others.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
.As racism carries references to race-based bigotry, prejudice, violence, oppression, stereotyping or discrimination, the term has varying and often hotly contested definitions.^ As racism carries references to race-based bigotry , prejudice , violence , oppression , stereotyping or discrimination , the term has varying and often hotly contested definitions.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Because the concept of race has been confused so thoroughly with our terrible history of racism, many avoid the term altogether.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The supplemental pack must be carried by the contestant during the race so as to simulate the weight conditions that others will have if they have a pack that contains all the watt hours in one pack.
  • Human Power Challenge - Race Events - ePower Events 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ohpv.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Racialism is a related term intended to avoid these negative meanings.^ Racialism is a related term intended to avoid these negative meanings.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Racialized stress increases the probability of pre-term and low birth weight deliveries and negatively affects the mental health of pre-school children.
  • What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC raceandgenomics.ssrc.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Constrast this with someone you uses the term "constructive criticism", and really means and intends constructive dialogue.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

 .According to the Oxford English Dictionary, racism is a belief or ideology that all members of each race possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another race or races.^ Not one characteristic, trait or even gene distinguishes all the members of one so-called race from all the members of another so-called race.

 ^ According to the Oxford English Dictionary , racism is a belief or ideology that all members of each race possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another race or races.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ All modern human beings are members of Homo sapiens sapiens - a single genus, species, and subspecies.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The Merriam-Webster's Webster's Dictionary defines racism as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race, and that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief.^ He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the belief that one's particular race is superior to the others.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ AM Yes, there are different human races.
  • Are there different human races [Archive] - Harmony Central Musician Community Forums 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC acapella.harmony-central.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The belief that capability or behavior can be racially defined.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 [23] .The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism thus: the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others.^ They are usually mixed, with one or the other dominant.
  • James Burnham on the Managerial State 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC mailstar.net [Source type: Original source]

 ^ There is only one race, the human race.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the belief that one's particular race is superior to the others.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Race and intelligence

Main article: Race and intelligence
.Researchers have reported differences in the average IQ test scores of various ethnic groups.^ Main article: Race and intelligence Researchers have reported differences in the average IQ test scores of various ethnic groups.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ IQ differences between different racial and ethnic groups....
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ "Since IQs vary by ethnicity as well as by race it is not surprising that the two populations have different levels of intelligence."
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The interpretation, causes, accuracy and reliability of these differences are highly controversial.^ The interpretation, causes, accuracy and reliability of these differences are highly controversial.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret these new data, and whether conclusions based on existing data are sound.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Thus, an alternative explanation for these racial differences would rely on selection for different personality traits.
  • Stalking the Wild Taboo -Edward M. Miller- Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Some researchers, such as Arthur Jensen, Richard Herrnstein, and Richard Lynn have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic.^ Some researchers, such as Arthur Jensen , Richard Herrnstein , and Richard Lynn , have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some researchers, such as Arthur Jensen , Richard Herrnstein , and Richard Lynn have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some scientists, such as Arthur Jensen and Richard Lynn , have argued that the threat of being labeled as a "scientific racist" has made the scientific study of race and racial differences politically taboo and has stifled true scientific discourse.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Others, for example Thomas Sowell, argue that the differences largely owe to social and economic inequalities.^ Others, for example Thomas Sowell , argue that the differences largely owe to social and economic inequalities.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ We can also encourage comparative studies of racial and other forms of social stratification, further challenging the notion that there is a biological explanation for oppression and inequality.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Information on subgroups describes the significant social, economic, and health differences among the Puerto Rican, Mexican-American, Cuban, and other Hispanic populations.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Still others have such as Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin have argued that categories such as "race" and "intelligence" are cultural constructs that render any attempt to explain such differences (whether genetically or sociologically) meaningless.^ Race differences in intelligence: A global perspective.
  • Race, genetics, and human reproductive strategies 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Still others such as Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin have argued that categories such as "race" and "intelligence" are cultural constructs that render any attempt to explain such differences (whether genetically or sociologically) meaningless.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The late Stephen Jay Gould was another.
  • Edge: THE NATURE OF NORMAL HUMAN VARIETY A Talk with Armand Leroi 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.edge.org [Source type: Original source]
.The Flynn effect is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates.^ The Flynn effect is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The Flynn effect is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores over generations (over time), an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Most evolutionary scientists believe man originated in East Africa and began to migrate to other parts of the world approximately 100,000 years ago.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 .Scholars therefore believe that rapid increases in average IQ seen in many places are much too fast to be as a result of changes in brain physiology and more likely as a result of environmental changes.^ Many more - still more likely.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Scholars therefore believe that rapid increases in average IQ seen in many places are much too fast to be as a result of changes in brain physiology and more likely as a result of environmental changes.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In the social sciences, many prefer terms like ethnicity , usually understood as having a lot more to do with learned culture than inherited traits.
  • Race 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC webspace.ship.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The fact that environment has a significant effect on IQ demolishes the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information[24][25].^ The fact that environment has a significant effect on IQ demolishes the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information [24] [25] .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The fact that environment has a significant effect on IQ undermines the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In cases where the above designations are considered inappropriate for presentation of statistical data on particular programs or for particular regional areas, the sponsoring agency may use: .
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Race in biomedicine

Main article: Race in biomedicine
.
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.^ Main article: Race in biomedicine There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Questions about the relevance of race in the biology of humans is an ongoing debate.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Then there is another race which has only one character of and you learn next to nothing about this race.
  • Writing Excuses Season 2 Episode 16: Non-Human Races » Writing Excuses 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.writingexcuses.com [Source type: General]

 .The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of diseases by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics.^ Opinion Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease .
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of diseases by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Alan Goodman and others have shown that race does not help physicians with diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of medical diseases.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Some have argued that in the absence of cheap and widespread genetic tests, racial identification is the best way to predict for certain diseases, such as Cystic fibrosis, Lactose intolerance, Tay-Sachs Disease and sickle cell anemia, which are genetically linked and more prevalent in some populations than others.^ It is probably all of these, some more than others.

 ^ Two Caucasians are more similar to each other genetically than a Caucasian and an Asian.
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some have argued that in the absence of cheap and widespread genetic tests, racial identification is the best way to predict for certain diseases, such as Cystic fibrosis , Lactose intolerance , Tay-Sachs Disease and sickle cell anemia , which are genetically linked and more prevalent in some populations than others.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .The most well-known examples of genetically-determined disorders that vary in incidence among populations would be sickle cell disease, thalassaemia, and Tay-Sachs disease.^ The most well-known examples of genetically-determined disorders that vary in incidence among populations would be sickle cell disease , thalassaemia , and Tay-Sachs disease .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Population and human genetics had already begun to cast doubt on the validity of prior racial classification schemes well before the 1970’s.
  • What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC raceandgenomics.ssrc.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations.
  • in8snotes 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC in8sworld.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
distribution of the sickle cell trait
distribution of Malaria
.There has been criticism of associating disorders with race.^ Malaria There has been criticism of associating disorders with race.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race American Association of Physical Anthropologists "Pure races do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .For example, in the United States sickle cell is typically associated with black people, but this trait is also found in people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry.^ For example, in the United States sickle cell is typically associated with black people, but this trait is also found in people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Even sickle cell anemia is no longer considered a "black" disease but one that emerged in areas with endemic malaria where the sickle cell trait was protective for survival.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997).
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [26] .The sickle cell trait offers some resistance to malaria.^ The sickle cell trait offers some resistance to malaria .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Adaptation to human cultural inventions -- such as agriculture, which creates concentrations of water that allow malaria-carrying mosquitoes to breed -- also produced higher frequencies of sickle-cell genes (related to malaria resistance) in human populations in some parts of Africa, India, Arabia, and the Mediterranean.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Even sickle cell anemia is no longer considered a "black" disease but one that emerged in areas with endemic malaria where the sickle cell trait was protective for survival.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 .In regions where malaria is present sickle cell has been positively selected and consequently the proportion of people with it is greater.^ In regions where malaria is present sickle cell has been positively selected and consequently the proportion of people with it is greater.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Even sickle cell anemia is no longer considered a "black" disease but one that emerged in areas with endemic malaria where the sickle cell trait was protective for survival.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have a prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but rather with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region.^ Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but rather with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ We should clearly note that there is no place in Hindu literature wherein Aryan has ever been equated with a race or with a particular set of physical charac- teristics.
  • The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.hindunet.org [Source type: Original source]

 .Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.^ Up to 40 percent of Africans in such areas carry the sickle- cell gene.
  • Resources: Database: Jared Diamond, "Race without Color," Discover 15 no. 11 (November 1994) 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.learntoquestion.com [Source type: Original source]
  • Race Without Color 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC xroads.virginia.edu [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have a prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]
.Another example of the use of race in medicine is the recent U.S. FDA approval of BiDil, a medication for congestive heart failure targeted at black people in the United States.^ Another example of the use of race in medicine is the recent U.S. FDA approval of BiDil , a medication for congestive heart failure targeted at black people in the United States.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As an example, we revisit a recent study of the efficacy of inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in 1,200 white versus 800 black patients with congestive heart failure [ 31 ] that generated a great deal of controversy [ 1 , 32 ].
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication, [ 95 ] not for pharmacological reasons.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [27] .Several researchers have questioned the scientific basis for arguing the merits of a medication based on race, however.^ Several researchers have questioned the scientific basis for arguing the merits of a medication based on race, however.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ For example, a recent editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine [ 1 ] claimed that "race is biologically meaningless" and warned that "instruction in medical genetics should emphasize the fallacy of race as a scientific concept and the dangers inherent in practicing race-based medicine."
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Many traits amongst races are not DNA based but cultural, however cultural traits eventually become genetic if repeated.
  • William Saletan and the Editors of Slate Demonstrate that They Are Not Members of the Genetic Elite 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC delong.typepad.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .As Stephan Palmie has recently pointed out, black Americans were disproportionately affected by Hurricane Katrina, but for social and not climatological reasons; similarly, certain diseases may disproportionately affect different races, but not for biological reasons.^ Summary of different biological definitions of "race" .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As Stephan Palmie has recently pointed out, black Americans were disproportionately affected by Hurricane Katrina, but for social and not climatological reasons; similarly, certain diseases may disproportionately affect different races, but not for biological reasons.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatisation and in liability to certain diseases.
  • Literature.org - The Online Literature Library 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.literature.org [Source type: Original source]

 .Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication in order to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication,[28] not for pharmacological reasons.^ Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication, [ 95 ] not for pharmacological reasons.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication in order to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication, [28] not for pharmacological reasons.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ For example, a recent editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine [ 1 ] claimed that "race is biologically meaningless" and warned that "instruction in medical genetics should emphasize the fallacy of race as a scientific concept and the dangers inherent in practicing race-based medicine."
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]
.Gene flow and intermixture also have an effect on predicting a relationship between race and "race linked disorders". Multiple sclerosis is typically associated with people of European descent and is of low risk to people of African descent.^ Multiple sclerosis is typically associated with people of European descent and is of low risk to people of African descent.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The Northern Europeans are my people and my race.

 ^ Gene flow and intermixture also have an effect on predicting a relationship between race and "race linked disorders".
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .However due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.^ However, due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Conversely, anatomically modern humans have always maintained relatively large amounts of gene flow and are contiguous in habit.
  • What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC raceandgenomics.ssrc.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ One study showed the statistic is biased toward smaller values due to a failure of certain core assumptions utilized in its formulation, such as its assumption that the effective population sizes of all the subpopulations analyzed are equivalent and that subpopulations are evolving independently of each other (significant gene flow between regions violates this assumption.
  • What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC raceandgenomics.ssrc.org [Source type: Academic]

 [29] .Notable African Americans affected by MS include Richard Pryor and Montel Williams.^ Notable African Americans affected by MS include Richard Pryor and Montel Williams .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ However, due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It includes people who indicated their race or races as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or wrote in entries such as African American, Afro American, Nigerian, or Haitian.
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .As populations continue to mix, the role of socially constructed races may diminish in identifying diseases.^ Races as a social construction .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Races as social constructions .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As populations continue to mix, the role of socially constructed races may diminish in identifying diseases.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

Race in law enforcement

Main articles: Racial profiling and Race and crime

Identification

.In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend.^ In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In the same individual the eyes, hair, and skin may be of different colours.

 ^ It sounds like an attempt to trivialize race, reducing it to skin color.

 .From the perspective of law enforcement officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means.^ From the perspective of law enforcement officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The picture that begins to emerge from this and other analyses of human genetic variation is that variation tends to be geographically structured, such that most individuals from the same geographic region will be more similar to one another than to individuals from a distant region.
  • in8snotes 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC in8sworld.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .Thus in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics, etc.^ Thus, in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics, etc.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Interpersonal preferences - preferences that depend on the characteristics of others - are typically hard to infer from observable individual behavior.
  • Group Loyalty and the Taste for Redistribution 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC ideas.repec.org [Source type: Academic]

 ^ That is one reason why skin color, though a favorite phenotypic trait for racial theorists across centuries, has never been able to support, all by itself, the weight that racial categories demand; hair type, eye color, facial features, stature, and all sorts of other characteristics have always been added to the mix.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]
.Scotland Yard use a classification based in the ethnic background of British society: W1 (White-British), W2 (White-Irish), W9 (Any other white background); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2 (Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other).^ From left to right, the FBI assigns the above individuals to the following races: White, Black, Hispanic , Asian.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ White; American Indian and Alaska Native; Asian; Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ White; American Indian and Alaska Native; Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander; Some other race .
  • Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 18 September 2009 16:36 UTC nationalatlas.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Some of the characteristics that constitute these groupings are biological and some are learned (cultural, linguistic, etc.^ Some of the characteristics that constitute these groupings are biological and some are learned (cultural, linguistic, etc.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ (The latter adds "association with a person or group with one or more of these actual or perceived characteristics."
  • Classical Values :: "Gender." If it ain't fixed, let's break it! 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.classicalvalues.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ Religious, cultural, social, national, ethnic, linguistic, genetic, geographical and anatomical groups have been and sometimes still are called 'races'".
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ) traits that are easy to notice.

Controversy

.In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like "dark skin complexion", etc.^ In many countries, such as France , the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like "dark skin complexion", etc.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Melanin makes the skin dark!
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Without data disaggregated by race, gender, and other categories, it would be difficult to identify problems stemming from race-based institutional and societal factors that privilege certain groups, such as the widespread U.S. practice of tracking by so-called ability.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .One of the factors that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects.^ One factor that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so-called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ One of the factors that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ This won't fit into race, but there clearly are groups of people with genetic similarities due to cultural closeness and mating together.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 .In the United States, the practice of racial profiling has been ruled to be both unconstitutional and also to constitute a violation of civil rights.^ In the United States, the practice of racial profiling has been ruled to be both unconstitutional and also to constitute a violation of civil rights .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ It was not an immediate process, of course; the practice of barring Jews from entry into various neighborhoods or clubs persisted in the United States in the 1970s.
  • 'Reclaiming Anti-Semitism' Refuted 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.britam.org [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997).
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's "racially divided" people.^ There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's "racially divided" people.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ One of the factors that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The point is that there will always be people who wish to construct socially unjust theories about racial differences.
  • Edge: THE NATURE OF NORMAL HUMAN VARIETY A Talk with Armand Leroi 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.edge.org [Source type: Original source]

 .Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.^ Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Racial profiling of minorities by law enforcement officials is considered by some people to be a form of racism.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ One prime example is the work of Arthur de Gobineau, author of the seminal work of 19th century racism, Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0604 (April, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

 .The history of misuse of racial categories to adversely impact one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.^ The history of misuse of racial categories to adversely impact one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The history of misuse of racial categories to impact adversely one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Around this type are grouped the others, which are related both to it and one another.

Use of race in forensics

.More recent work in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis (see Lewontin's Fallacy) has led law enforcement to narrow their search for individuals based on a range of phenotypical characteristics found consistent with DNA evidence.^ More recent work in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis (see Lewontin's Fallacy ) has led law enforcement to narrow their search for individuals based on a range of phenotypical characteristics found consistent with DNA evidence.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by indicating what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 [30]
.While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by giving an indication of what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in.^ While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by indicating what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The history of misuse of racial categories to impact adversely one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .For example, in one case phenotypical characteristics suggested that the friends and family of an unidentified victim would be found among the Asian community, but the DNA evidence directed official attention to missing Native Americans, where her true identity was eventually confirmed.^ For example, in one case phenotypical characteristics suggested that the friends and family of an unidentified victim would be found among the Asian community, but the DNA evidence directed official attention to missing Native Americans, where her true identity was eventually confirmed.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some suggested this be a "Native American" category.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ It is not impossible that both diluvial races lived at the same era, so that crossing appeared, as would seem the case from the skulls found at Galley Hill and at Brünn.

 [31] .In an attempt to avoid potentially misleading associations suggested by the word "race," this classification is called "biogeographical ancestry" (BGA),[32] but the terms for the BGA categories are similar to those used as for race.^ In an attempt to avoid potentially misleading associations suggested by the word "race," this classification is called "biogeographical ancestry" (BGA), [ 100 ] but the terms for the BGA categories are similar to those used as for race.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The word race is used in a variety of ways.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful, [ 72 ] that these categories correspond to clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data , [ 73 ] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race.^ The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Some scientists, such as Arthur Jensen and Richard Lynn , have argued that the threat of being labeled as a "scientific racist" has made the scientific study of race and racial differences politically taboo and has stifled true scientific discourse.
  • Ask A Word 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.askaword.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful, [ 72 ] that these categories correspond to clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data , [ 73 ] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group.^ To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ This won't fit into race, but there clearly are groups of people with genetic similarities due to cultural closeness and mating together.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 .Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.^ Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ They have general characteristics as Narn, Centauri or Mimbari but are individuals with their own thoughts, goals, agendas… (also they’re not dressed all alike in various pyjamas!
  • Writing Excuses Season 2 Episode 16: Non-Human Races » Writing Excuses 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.writingexcuses.com [Source type: General]

 ^ While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by indicating what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]
.Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g.^ Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Forensic science supports the reality of the human races, and can racially identify race from skeletal remains with great accuracy, as described by forensic scientist George Gill: [Note #3] .

 ^ He argued there is nevertheless a strong relationship between the phenotypic features forensic anthropologists base their identifications on, and popular racial categories.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 cranial measurements) in order to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. .In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them."^ In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?"
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them."
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ BY PETER RISKIND, M.D., PH.D. ^ Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say CAROLYN ABRAHAM June 25 , 2005 ^ DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race By Richard Willing, USA TODAY ^ Compositions and methods for inferring ancestry ^ Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 [33] Sauer observed that the use of 19th century racial categories is widespread among forensic anthropologists:
.
  • "In many cases there is little doubt that an individual belonged to the Negro, Caucasian, or Mongoloid racial stock."^ There are racially mixed individuals and populations.

     ^ "In many cases there is little doubt that an individual belonged to the Negro, Caucasian, or Mongoloid racial stock."
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ These interpersonal preferences are characterized by a negative exposure effect - individuals decrease their support for welfare if there are more welfare recipients in their area - and racial group loyalty - individuals increase their support for welfare spending if a larger fraction of welfare recipients in their area belongs to their racial group.
    • Group Loyalty and the Taste for Redistribution 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC ideas.repec.org [Source type: Academic]

     [34]
    • .
  • "Thus the forensic anthropologist uses the term race in the very broad sense to differentiate what are commonly known as white, black and yellow racial stocks."^ Use of race in forensics .
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

     ^ "Thus the forensic anthropologist uses the term race in the very broad sense to differentiate what are commonly known as white, black and yellow racial stocks."
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ Race Race in biomedicine Race baiting Race card Racial purity Racial discrimination Racial realism Racial superiority The Race Question The Race of the Future Societal collapse Subspecies White Nationalism Whiteness studies Nationalism Ethnic nationalism .
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

     [35]
    • .
  • "In estimating race forensically, we prefer to determine if the skeleton is Negroid, or Non-Negroid.^ "In estimating race forensically, we prefer to determine if the skeleton is Negroid, or Non-Negroid.
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

     ^ So those of us in forensic anthropology know that the skeleton reflects race, whether "real" or not, just as well if not better than superficial soft tissue does.

     ^ Forensic anthropologists regularly classify skeletons of decomposed bodies by race.
    • Race, genetics, and human reproductive strategies 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: Academic]

     .If findings favor Non-Negroid, then further study is necessary to rule out Mongoloid."^ If findings favor Non-Negroid, then further study is necessary to rule out Mongoloid."
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ Thus the northern European Caucasoids should resemble the Mongoloids more than those further south, and the Mediterranean Caucasoids should resemble the Negroids more.
    • Stalking the Wild Taboo -Edward M. Miller- Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     [36]
.According to Sauer, "The assessment of these categories is based upon copious amounts of research on the relationship between biological characteristics of the living and their skeletons."^ According to Sauer, "The assessment of these categories is based upon copious amounts of research on the relationship between biological characteristics of the living and their skeletons."
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ As president of the American Cancer Society from 1988 to 1989, Freeman explored the relationship between racial classifications, created arbitrarily by men and based on physical characteristics, and the improper use of these sociological classifications as objective scientific variables.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In all cultures people are placed into categories based on their gender and are expected to have certain values and social roles according to which category they are put in.
  • Artifact & Artifice: Cultural Studies of the Textual City: April 2008 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC artifactandartifice.blogspot.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .Nevertheless, he agrees with other anthropologists that race is not a valid biological taxonomic category, and that races are socially constructed.^ Nevertheless, he agrees with other anthropologists that race is not a valid biological taxonomic category, and that races are socially constructed.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Race is not a scientifically valid biological category, and yet it remains important as a socially constructed category.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Races as social constructions .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .He argued there is nevertheless a strong relationship between the phenotypic features forensic anthropologists base their identifications on, and popular racial categories.^ He argued there is nevertheless a strong relationship between the phenotypic features forensic anthropologists base their identifications on, and popular racial categories.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Nor would a broad classification based on "racial categories" tell you that Ashkenazi Jews, for example, are prone to a rare mutation that causes breast cancer.
  • Edge: THE NATURE OF NORMAL HUMAN VARIETY A Talk with Armand Leroi 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.edge.org [Source type: Original source]

 ^ The most widely used human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color, cranial or facial features and hair texture), and self-identification."
  • PEGI vs. BBFC: Fight! | GamePolitics 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.gamepolitics.com [Source type: General]

 .Thus, he argued, forensic anthropologists apply a racial label to human remains because their analysis of physical morphology enables them to predict that when the person was alive, that particular racial label would have been applied to them.^ Thus, he argued, forensic anthropologists apply a racial label to human remains because their analysis of physical morphology enables them to predict that when the person was alive, a particular racial label would have been applied to them.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Thus, results from such studies would be largely derived from the Caucasian majority, with obtained parameter estimates that might not apply to the groups with minority representation.
  • Genome Biology | Full text | Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genomebiology.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Forensic science supports the reality of the human races, and can racially identify race from skeletal remains with great accuracy, as described by forensic scientist George Gill: [Note #3] .

 [37]

Regional issues

Race in the United States

Main articles: Race in the United States and Race and genetics#Admixture in the United States
.The United States is a racially diverse country.^ Main articles: Race in the United States and Race and genetics#Admixture in the United States The United States is a racially diverse country.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Few who have paid attention to the political facts, rather than to theories about these facts, in the United States, will disagree with the account as it applies to this country.
  • James Burnham on the Managerial State 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC mailstar.net [Source type: Original source]

 ^ In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997).
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 .There is an extensive history of race-based slavery, the abolishment of it, and its economic impact.^ There is an extensive history of race-based slavery , the abolishment of it, and its economic impact.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ World History photo set : Act to Abolish Slavery.

 ^ Biologically distinct races do not exist today and there is no evidence that they have ever existed in the recorded history of the human community.
  • Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.fathom.com [Source type: Original source]

 .Modern issues of race, as well as its impact in the political and economic development of the nation have been examined by multiple historians and researchers.^ Modern issues of race, as well as its impact in the political and economic development of the nation have been examined by multiple historians and researchers.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Race may not be "real" in a biological sense, but it surely is "real" socially, politically, economically, and psychologically.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ Research was undertaken to provide an objective assessment of the data quality issues associated with various approaches to collecting data on race and ethnicity.
  • Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Dataon Race and Ethnicity 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.census.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .There are issues and controversies with the self-identification and classification of race within the country, and several trends have emerged in the demographic movements of ethnic groups as discovered by self-reports and genetic testing.^ There are issues and controversies with the self-identification and classification of race within the country, and several trends have emerged in the demographic movements of ethnic groups as discovered by self-reports and genetic testing.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Main articles: Ethnic groups in Brazil and racial democracy Compared to the United States , the identification of a person by race is far more fluid and flexible in Brazil than in the U.S.; however, there still are racial stereotypes and prejudices.
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ But there is propoganda, social engineering, and coercion of society stemming from government policies/actions, religious organisations, and certain lobby groups on a number of social and/or economic issues.
  • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

Race in Brazil

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Brazil and racial democracy
.Compared to the United States, the identification of a person by race is far more fluid and flexible in Brazil than in the U.S.; however, there still are racial stereotypes and prejudices.^ But this represents far more than the genetic difference between races.

 ^ Race is more than stereotypes and individual prejudice.

 ^ Racism Racial segregation Racialism Racial profiling Race and intelligence Race in the United States Race in Brazil .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .African features have been considered less desirable; Blacks have been considered socially inferior, and Whites superior (Harris 1964: 59-60).^ African features have been considered less desirable; Blacks have been considered socially inferior, and Whites superior (Harris 1964: 59-60).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ These white supremacist values seem to be an obvious legacy of European colonization and the slave-based plantation system (Harris 1964: 54-57).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ In considering these answers, it must be remembered that college educated women were a much lower percentage of the black population, so their answers were probably less typical of all blacks than the college educated were of all whites.
  • Stalking the Wild Taboo -Edward M. Miller- Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .These white supremacist values seem to be an obvious legacy of European colonization and the slave-based plantation system (Harris 1964: 54-57).^ These white supremacist values seem to be an obvious legacy of European colonization and the slave-based plantation system (Harris 1964: 54-57).
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ What is of the greatest interest and importance for an understanding of this matter is that the concept developed as a direct result of the trade in slaves by European merchants (Montague, 1964, pp.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ David Brion Davis comments on the thinking of these two seminal European philosophers as regards the slave.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil is reflective of the extent of miscegenation in Brazilian society, a society that remains highly, but not strictly, stratified along color lines.^ The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil reflects the extent of miscegenation in Brazilian society , a society that remains highly, but not strictly, stratified along color lines.
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Genotype is a less complex basis for racial classification than is phenotype, which involves both genes and the environment.
  • Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC faculty.mdc.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 ^ The racial classifications that educators use to monitor student outcome data reflect our society's social construction of race.
  • Phi Delta Kappan - How Real is Race 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.ccebos.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race American Association of Physical Anthropologists "Pure races do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."
  2. ^ Bamshad, Michael and Steve E. Olson. "Does Race Exist?", Scientific American Magazine (10 November 2003).
  3. ^ S O Y Keita, R A Kittles, C D M Royal, G E Bonney, P Furbert-Harris, G M Dunston & C N Rotimi, 2004 "Conceptualizing human variation" in Nature Genetics 36, S17 - S20 Conceptualizing human variation
  4. ^ For example this statement expressing the official viewpoint of the American Anthropological Association at their webpage: "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation lies within so-called racial groups. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them."
  5. ^ Thompson, William; Joseph Hickey (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-41365-X. 
  6. ^ a b American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race"
  7. ^ a b Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination, 'Racecraft'" in American Ethnologist 34(2): 214
  8. ^ a b Mevorach, Katya Gibel (2007) "Race, Racism and Academic Complicity" in American Ethnologist 34(2): 239-240
  9. ^ Daniel A. Segal 'The European': Allegories of Racial Purity Anthropology Today, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1991), pp. 7-9 doi:10.2307/3032780
  10. ^ Bindon, Jim. University of Alabama. "Post World War II". 2005. August 28, 2006.
  11. ^ Leonard Lieberman, Rodney C. Kirk, and Alice Littlefield, "Perishing Paradigm: Race—1931-99," American Anthropologist 105, no. 1 (2003): 110-13. A following article in the same issue, by Mat Cartmill and Kaye Brown, questions the precise rate of decline, but from their biased perspective agree that the Negroid/Caucasoid/Mongoloid paradigm has fallen into near-total disfavor.
  12. ^ (Wilson et al. 2001), (Cooper et al. 2003) (given in summary by Bamshad et al. 2004 p.599)
  13. ^ (Schwartz 2001), (Stephens 2003) (given in summary by Bamshad et al. 2004 p.599)
  14. ^ (Smedley and Smedley 2005), (Helms et al. 2005), [1]. Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than among them (Lewontin 1972).
  15. ^ (Risch et al. 2002), (Bamshad 2005). {{subst:#ifexist:Neil Risch|[[Neil Risch|]]|[[Wikipedia:Neil Risch|]]}} argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! ... you can undermine any definitional system... In a recent study... we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance... So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. .And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly.^ I'm just waiting for an anthroposophist now to take this right back to the beginning: "So is it racist to admit there are differences between the races?"
    • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

     ^ The difference between the US and UK is that in the UK there wasn't a need to show harm before an independant ratings body was allocated the force of law.
    • PEGI vs. BBFC: Fight! | GamePolitics 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.gamepolitics.com [Source type: General]

     ^ I think he may ) have ) found that if parents were directed there, they got a little too much ) anthroposophy ("cosmological cell biology" anyone?
    • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

     And there is sexism. .And you can talk about age the same way.^ Login or register to post comments Submitted by chuma - February 29, 2008 at 6:55 am -0500 Blase: Way to not understand what you are talking about.
    • PEGI vs. BBFC: Fight! | GamePolitics 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.gamepolitics.com [Source type: General]

     A person's chronological age does not correspond perfectly with his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. .Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age.^ As always I would ) Find it very )interesting if you would point to a statement here, or ) elsewhere, where someone has claimed )that Waldorf does not have a right ) to ) )teach art this way.
    • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

     ^ As always I would Find it very )interesting if you would point to a statement here, or elsewhere, where someone has claimed )that Waldorf does not have a right to )teach art this way.
    • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

     ^ I think encouraging parents to read to their young children is a good thing, and I do so (not just on this list, but in various other ways in my own life, such as tutoring).
    • Waldorf Critics Archive 0602 (February, 2006) 9 October 2009 20:31 UTC www.waldorfcritics.org [Source type: Original source]

     .Does that mean we should throw it out?^ When movies ratings came out, was everyone "R? does that mean racing?"
    • PEGI vs. BBFC: Fight! | GamePolitics 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.gamepolitics.com [Source type: General]

     ... Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility"(Gitschier 2005).
  16. ^ (Harpending and Rogers 2000), (Bamshad et al. 2003), (Edwards 2003), (Bamshad et al. 2004), (Tang et al. 2005), (Rosenberg et al. 2005): "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".
  17. ^ (Mountain and Risch 2004)
  18. ^ Frederick P. Rivara and Laurence Finberg, "Use of the Terms Race and Ethnicity," Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 155, no. .2 (2001): 119. For similar author's guidelines, see Robert S. Schwartz, "Racial Profiling in Medical Research," The New England Journal of Medicine, 344 (no, 18, May 3, 2001); M.T. Fullilove, "Abandoning 'Race' as a Variable in Public Health Research: An Idea Whose Time has Come," American Journal of Public Health, 88 (1998), 1297-1298; and R. Bhopal and L. Donaldson, "White, European, Western, Caucasian, or What?^ Students will read Race in conjunction with four literature units to be studied over the course of the school year to see how different authors over time and culture have depicted the clash between differing peoples.

     ^ The GMC's close relationship with the medical profession has come under fire numerous times in recent years and consequently their replacement has been much mooted.
    • PEGI vs. BBFC: Fight! | GamePolitics 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC www.gamepolitics.com [Source type: General]

     ^ Group leaders should monitor time and group interactions so no single member dominates or disrupts, but may need back-up from the teacher.

     Inappropriate Labeling in Research on Race, Ethnicity, and Health." American Journal of Public Health, 88 (1998), 1303-1307.
  19. ^ See program announcement and requests for grant applications at the NIH website, at URL: http://grants1.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-03-057.html.
  20. ^ Bindon, Jim. University of Alabama. "Post World War II". 2005. August 28, 2006.
  21. ^ [2]
  22. ^ "'Race'—Still an Issue for Physical Anthropology? Results of Polish Studies Seen in the Light of the U.S. Findings" by Katarzyna A. Kaszycka. American Anthropologist March 2003, Vol. 105, No. 1, pp. 116-124
  23. ^ Definition of racism at Merriam Webster
  24. ^ biological theories of race page165
  25. ^ page183
  26. ^ sickle cell prevalence
  27. ^ Taylor AL, Ziesche S, Yancy C, Carson P, D'Agostino R Jr, Ferdinand K, Taylor M, Adams K, Sabolinski M, Worcel M, Cohn JN. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2049-57. PMID 15533851.
  28. ^ Duster, Troy (2005) "Race and Reification in Science" in Science 307(5712): 1050-1051, Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2004) "Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health" in differences 15(3):1-37, Jones, Joseph and Alan Goodman (2005) "BiDil and the 'fact' of Genetic Blackness" in Anthropology News 46(7):26, Kahn, Joseph (2004) "How a Drug Becomes 'Ethnic:' Law, Commerce, and the Production of Racial Categories in Medicine" in Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law and Politics 4(1):1-46, Kahn, Joseph (2005) "Misreading Race and Genomics after BiDil" in Nature Genetics 37(7):655-656, Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination and 'Racecraft'" in American Ethnologist 34(2): 205-222).
  29. ^ Multiple Sclerosis. The Immune System's Terrible Mistake. BY PETER RISKIND, M.D., PH.D.
  30. ^ Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say CAROLYN ABRAHAM June 25, 2005
  31. ^ DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race By Richard Willing, USA TODAY
  32. ^ Compositions and methods for inferring ancestry
  33. ^ Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111.
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     ^ Of all humaniti, only the Solomani display ethnic diversity (because each other human race grew from an undiverse initial population).
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     ^ The proportion of genes the human races share in common roughly corresponds with the temporal length of their common evolution and ancestry.

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     ^ World History photo set : Loaded slave ship from Thomas Clarkson, Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species .

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     ^ For example, a recent editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine [ 1 ] claimed that "race is biologically meaningless" and warned that "instruction in medical genetics should emphasize the fallacy of race as a scientific concept and the dangers inherent in practicing race-based medicine."
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     ^ But, to deny or obfuscate the reality of a genetic basis for racial differences, as so many critics of the race concept have done, does not change reality.
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     ^ Of all the differences between the races of man, the colour of the skin is the most conspicuous and one of the best marked.
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     ^ For our purposes here, on the basis of numerous population genetic surveys, we categorize Africans as those with primary ancestry in sub-Saharan Africa; this group includes African Americans and Afro-Caribbeans.
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     ^ This statistic is used to compare differences between any two given populations and can be used to measure genetic differences between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously.
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    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

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     ^ A genetic definition of race is less arbitrary than is one based on phenotype because evaluations of gene frequencies are less impressionistic than are evaluations of such outward traits as hair type and skin color.
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     ^ The most widely used human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color, cranial or facial features and hair texture), and self-identification."
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     ^ As we enter this new millennium with an advancing arsenal of molecular genetic tools and strategies, the view of genes as immutable is too simplistic.
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     ^ In fact, both the behavioral-genetic and molecular-genetic data suggest that substantially more relatedness exists among human populations than is likely from either Coon's (1962) model or from the modern alternatives.
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     ^ Development of Federal data sets includes increased use of administrative records matched to survey data for trend analysis.
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     ^ Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful, [ 72 ] that these categories correspond to clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data , [ 73 ] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.
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     ^ There are countless genetic studies that show racial differences in the frequencies of different gene sequences and genetic traits, although the term population is commonly used as a euphemism for race.

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     .Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:505–512
  • Thorne and Wolpoff 1992 "The Multiregional Evolution of Humans" in Scientific American (April) 76-83
  • Todorov T (1993) On human diversity.^ Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:505–512 Thorne and Wolpoff 1992 "The Multiregional Evolution of Humans" in Scientific American (April) 76-83 Todorov T (1993) On human diversity.
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ For instance, U. S. whites have a life span estimated at 76.1 years versus 69.1 years for U. S. blacks (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1993).
    • Stalking the Wild Taboo -Edward M. Miller- Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ Alternative models for the evolution of the human races: Multiregional and single origin.
    • Race, genetics, and human reproductive strategies 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: Academic]

     .Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
  • Wallace R, Wallace D, Wallace RG (2004) Coronary heart disease, chronic inflammation, and pathogenic social hierarchy: a biological limit to possible reductions in morbidity and mortality.^ Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Wallace R, Wallace D, Wallace RG (2004) Coronary heart disease, chronic inflammation, and pathogenic social hierarchy: a biological limit to possible reductions in morbidity and mortality.
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ DaCapo Press, Cambridge, MA ^ Takaki R (1993) A different mirror: a history of multicultural America.
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Spickard PR (1992) The illogic of American racial categories.
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     .J Natl Med Assoc 96:609–619
  • Wilson JF, Weale ME, Smith AC, Gratrix F, Fletcher B, Thomas MG, Bradman N, Goldstein DB (2001) Population genetic structure of variable drug response.^ J Natl Med Assoc 96:609–619 Wilson JF, Weale ME, Smith AC, Gratrix F, Fletcher B, Thomas MG, Bradman N, Goldstein DB (2001) Population genetic structure of variable drug response.
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations.
    • in8snotes 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC in8sworld.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ J Natl Cancer Inst 92:2009–2017 Pritchard JK (2001) Are rare variants responsible for susceptibility to complex diseases?
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     .Nat Genet 29:265–269
  • Wilson and Brown 1953 "The Subspecies Concept and Its Taxonomic Application" in Systematic Zoology 2: 97-110
  • Wolpoff, Milford 1993 "Multiregional Evolution: The Fossil Alternative to Eden" in The Human Evolution Sourcebook Russell Ciochon and John Fleagle, eds.
  • Yu N, Chen FC, Ota S, Jorde LB, Pamilo P, Patthy L, Ramsay M, Jenkins T, Shyue SK, Li WH (2002) Larger genetic differences within Africans than between Africans and Eurasians.^ In short, Livingston and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     ^ Although Wolfe and Gray did not notice this, this is the first clear evidence that sexual selection has played a role in the evolution of differences in gene frequencies among human populations.
    • Stalking the Wild Taboo -Edward M. Miller- Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations 16 September 2009 23:25 UTC www.lrainc.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

     ^ X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance...
    • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]
    • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

     Genetics 161:269–274

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  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The only difference was placement of a question on language use in their home (English for 90 percent of the population) after the ancestry question in the second survey and farther apart in the first survey.
  • http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/race-ethnicity.html 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC www.whitehouse.gov [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

 .The original content was at Race (classification of human beings).^ Race (classification of human beings) .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 ^ Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Race (classification of human beings) .
  • Boston University School of Theology 11 September 2009 9:41 UTC sthweb.bu.edu [Source type: Academic]

 ^ The original content was at Race (classification of human beings) .
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 .The list of authors can be seen in the page history.^ The list of authors can be seen in the page history .
  • Race (classification of human beings) - Genealogy 23 September 2009 1:16 UTC genealogy.wikia.com [Source type: Academic]

 .As with this Familypedia wiki, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons License.^ As with this Genealogy wiki, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons License .
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