From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Name:
Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR)
("The Senate and People of Rome")
[nb 1]
Roman Empire |
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The maximum extent of Roman Empire under Trajan in AD 117 |
| Capital |
.^ Rome and Romania is continued in The Ottoman Sultans, 1290-1924 AD , Successors of Rome: Germania, 395-774 , Successors of Rome: Francia, 447-present , Successors of Rome: The Periphery of Francia , and Successors of Rome: Russia, 862-present .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Meanwhile, Romania, with institutional continuity, commercial culture, and education, began to recover its strength, despite some severe blows continuing to fall.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ But political enemies of the brothers Scipio back in Rome sought to discredit their opponents, by insisting the terms upon Syria must be more severe.
.^ The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Aftermath to the Fall of Carthage The immediately evident effect of Romes victory was that the city Utica was now made capital of the new Roman province of Africa.
^ Remarkably, this may have been the bronze statute of Athena Promachus which had stood in the open on the Acropolis at Athens, reportedly visible from out to sea, and was moved to the new city by Constantine.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Mediolanum (Milan) was its western counterpart during the increasingly frequent East/West divisions. The western imperial court was later relocated to Ravenna. |
| Language(s) |
Latin, Greek |
| Religion |
Polytheism and Roman imperial cult
(to 380)
Christianity
(from 380) |
| Government |
Autocracy |
| Emperor |
| - 27 BC–AD 14 |
Augustus |
| - 378–395 |
Theodosius I |
| - 475–476 / 1449–1453 |
Romulus Augustus / Constantine XI |
| Legislature |
Roman Senate |
| Historical era |
Classical antiquity |
| - Battle of Actium |
2 September 31 BC |
| - Octavian proclaimed Augustus |
27 BC |
| - Diocletian splits imperial administration between East and West |
285 |
| - Constantine the Great establishes Constantinople as a new imperial capital |
330 |
| - Death of Theodosius the Great, followed by permanent division of the Empire into eastern and western halves |
395 |
| - Deposition of western emperor Romulus Augustus/Fall of Constantinople * |
AD 476/1453 |
| Area |
| - 25 BC[2][3] |
2,750,000 km2 (1,061,781 sq mi) |
| - 50[2] |
4,200,000 km2 (1,621,629 sq mi) |
| - 117[2] |
5,000,000 km2 (1,930,511 sq mi) |
| - 390 [2] |
4,400,000 km2 (1,698,849 sq mi) |
| Population |
| - 25 BC[2][3] est. |
56,800,000 |
| Density |
20.7 /km2 (53.5 /sq mi) |
| - 117[2] est. |
88,000,000 |
| Density |
17.6 /km2 (45.6 /sq mi) |
| Currency |
(a) 27 BC - AD 212: 1 gold aureus (1/40 lb. of gold, devalued to 1/50 lb. by 212) = 25 silver denarii = 100 bronze sesterces = 400 copper asses.
(b) 294 - 312: 1 gold aureus solidus (1/60 lb. of gold) = 10 silver argentei = 40 bronze folles = 1,000 debased metal denarii
(c) 312 onwards: 1 gold solidus (1/72 lb.) = 24 silver siliquae = 180 bronze folles |
| * These events marked the end of the Western Roman Empire (286–476)[4] and of the Eastern Roman Empire (330–1453), respectively. |
|
.^ The great Carthaginian controlled much of southern Italy, but dotted throughout this territory were Roman fortresses, prepared to hold out and hindering his ability to manoeuvre.
^ This no longer seems so admirable, and the Empire founded by Julius Caesar and Augustus, as a form of government, does not look like an advance in the course of human progress.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They were never subject to the Roman Emperors in Constantinople, and they occupied territories that had been abandoned by the Roman Empire in the Third Century , or never occupied by it in the first place.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[5] .^ They were the first Roman dynasty with a surname, which shows some of the social changes that took place during the long period of the Macedonians.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So, while we think of "Augustus" as the name of the first Emperor, it was simply a title, whose import was well remembered by subsequent Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ During the time in which the decemviri were in office the Roman constitution was no longer in place, for they ruled in place of the consuls.
The
Roman Republic, which preceded it, had been weakened and
subverted through several
civil wars.
[nb . Several events are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including
Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual
dictator (44 BC), the
Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the
honorific Augustus (4 January 27 BC).
^ This no longer seems so admirable, and the Empire founded by Julius Caesar and Augustus, as a form of government, does not look like an advance in the course of human progress.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He did not even hold the Republican office of Dictator, as Julius Caesar had.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[nb . Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but reached its zenith under Emperor
Trajan.
^ In the early days of the Roman republic all power would reside in the hands of the Roman aristocracy, the so-called patricians ( patricii ).
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ That was dangerous, indeed fatal, for the Republic; but in those terms Julius Caesar began the creation of the Roman Empire already as an "emperor."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The great Carthaginian controlled much of southern Italy, but dotted throughout this territory were Roman fortresses, prepared to hold out and hindering his ability to manoeuvre.
^ They were never subject to the Roman Emperors in Constantinople, and they occupied territories that had been abandoned by the Roman Empire in the Third Century , or never occupied by it in the first place.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Vandals interrupted Roman rule, but not long enough to make any lasting difference, if Islam had not soon arrived.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ These concealed troops then sprung upon the marching Roman army as passed the next day.
^ The Pope thus became, as Popes had long desired, the ruler of all the Roman Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ IV. FOURTH EMPIRE, LATE "ROMANIA/BYZANTIUM," 1059 AD-1453 AD, Era of Diocletian 776-1170, 394 years .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ But the greatest of the 3rd century Emperors, like Aurelian, don't get popular books, movies, and BBC television epics made about them.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since the Schism of 1054 between the Latin and the Greek Churches had not occurred yet, Bede would have seen the contemporary Emperor (a late Heraclian , mostly) invested with all the aura and authority of Constantine the Great.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
During the following decades the empire was often divided along an East/West axis. After the death of
Theodosius I in 395 it was divided for the last time.
[7]
.^ With the Persians in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia, the Roman Empire seemed doomed to complete collapse.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ More than the coup of Odoacer in 476, this signaled a real institutional change in the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. CRISIS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 379-476, 97 Years The map shows the key incursions that would fatally undermine the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[8] .^ Decius and Herennius were killed in battle by the Goths in 251 -- the only Roman Emperors to die in battle (against external enemies) besides Julian (against the Persians, 363), Valens (against the Goths again, 378), Nicephorus I (against the Bulgars, 811), and Constantine XI (with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Once the Ottomans broke the Roman army in Bithynia (1302), they, and other Turks, quickly reduced Roman possessions in Asia to fragments, never to be recovered.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Google describes this file as, "A thorough investigation into the Eastern Roman Empire."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[9]
Government
Emperor
The powers of an emperor, (his
imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his "tribunician powers" (
potestas tribunicia) and his "proconsular powers" (
imperium proconsulare).
[10] .^ The senate under the guidance of Fabius largely took control of matters.
^ If inspiration came from Greek traders within Rome's walls, then the power the plebeians possessed stemmed from Rome's need for soldiers.
^ Ptolemy of Egypt was a 4 year old child, which had recently been made a ward of Rome (no doubt with an eye on the grain supply).
[11].^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
^ In 137 BC again a Roman army found itself trapped by those it was supposed to be besieging.
^ Lucius Scipio had no great experience of military matters and hence his older brother Scipio Africanus accompanied him to oversee the army.
.^ But when this was put to the popular assembly of the comitia centuriata for a formal declaration of war, it was overwhelmingly defeated.
^ Rather than accept the treaty, the senate claimed Mancinus had had no right to negotiate it and decided to hand over the hapless commander to the Numantines.
^ (Technically, power over declarations of war and peace lay with the comitia centuriata and foreign policy with the senate.
[12]
The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that had been performed by the
censors, including the power to control senate membership.
[13] In addition, the emperor controlled the
religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always
Pontifex Maximus and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.
[12] .^ Serious as all these revolts sound, they could only have helped tip the balance if the Samnites still were equal to Roman power.
^ These "Sons of the Count," Cometopuli , eventually got an Emperor back after Boris and his brother Romanus escaped captivity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[14].^ The Second Samnite War The period between the Great Latin War and the Second Samnite War saw the two main military powers jostling for position on the Italian mainland.
Being paid by the imperial treasury, the legionaries also swore an annual military oath of loyalty towards him, called the
Sacramentum.
[15]
The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis.
.^ After Gundobad, a nephew of Ricimer and shortly to be King of Burgundy (where he would outlive most of his contemporaries), briefly had his own figurehead on the throne, a new nominee of the Eastern Emperor, Julius Nepos, was installed.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Many Emperors, of course, wanted to associate their sons with them to arrange for their succession; but in the violent ends of most Emperors, the sons usually died with them.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his new status and authority in order to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the
Praetorian Guard and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the
donativum, a monetary reward.
Senate
.^ The Roman force was all but annihilated.
^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[16]
.^ The senate under the guidance of Fabius largely took control of matters.
^ It argued that the two consuls had not possessed the authority to accept such conditions without prior sanction by the senate of Rome.
^ But Augustus otherwise assembled offices and authority sufficient to explain the power that he had actually obtained by force.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The senate also still remembered the arrogant lecture it had received by the Rhodians, when Roman power in Greece had seemed to be on the wane.
Many emperors showed a certain degree of respect towards this ancient institution, while others were notorious for ridiculing it. During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two
consuls,
[17] and usually acted as the presiding officer.
.^ It would be some time before the Bulgars could be seriously defeated, much less subdued.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[17] By the third century, the senate had been reduced to a glorified municipal body.
Senators and equestrians
No emperor could rule the empire without the Senatorial order and the
Equestrian order.
.^ The brief tenures of Cato the Elder and Gracchus were merely short interludes in which governance was said to be fair due to the upstanding nature of these two individuals.
^ More so, with Romes acquisition of the mountain forests, she soon began the irresponsible logging of these important woodlands.
^ More than an affectation, this practice accompanies the circumstance that the earliest and most interesting and important literature in these languages, especially for new scholars, is in the Attic and Ciceronian dialects -- from Thucydides and Plato to Caesar and Cicero himself.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
It was from among their ranks that the provincial governors, legion commanders, and similar officials were chosen.
These two classes were hereditary and mostly closed to outsiders. Very successful and favoured individuals could enter, but this was a rare occurrence. The careers of the young aristocrats was influenced by their family connections and the favour of patrons. As important as ability, knowledge, skill, or competence; patronage was considered vital for a successful career and the highest posts and offices required the emperor's favour and trust.
Senatorial order
The son of a senator was expected to follow the
Cursus honorum, a
career ladder, and the more prestigious positions were restricted to senators only.
.^ The Carthaginian army consisted of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 100 elephants.
Equestrian order
Below the Senatorial order was the Equestrian order. The requirements and posts reserved for this class, while perhaps not so prestigious, were still very important.
.^ Whether anything quite like this happened or not, however, Bulgaria only lasted four more years before being annexed.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Military
The Roman empire under
Hadrian (ruled 117-138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in AD 125
Legions
.^ One major effect the wars had had on Roman society was to reduce the number of patricians significantly.
^ A later Empire that is Christian, more somberly moralistic, and more beset with war, sounds like a different civilization, which it is, and isn't.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ More so, Romes destruction of Capua, Italys foremost city of trade, during the war with Hannibal undoubtedly had only furthered Punic dominance.
Several legions, particularly those with doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact suggested by the title
Gemina (Twin)
[19].
.^ She had three legions which were sent out, commanded by the consuls, to shadow Hannibals army, making any assault impossible.
^ In his attempt to extend Roman power to the Elbe, Augustus lost three Legions at the battle of the Teutoburger Wald in 9 AD. The numbers of the lost Legions were never used again (likewise with the Legions later disbanded for rebellion).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Varus by Arminius, destruction of three legions, abandonment of Germany, 9 AD; Alexandrian Year , 23 BC .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30.
[20]
.^ The Roman Army under Augustus contained 28 Legions ( Legio , Legiones ), not counting the Praetorian Guard.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They would continue to do so for more than three centuries -- the first reference to Englishmen in the service of Romania was in 1088, the last in 1404 -- 316 years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Models now, however, can look much, much better -- the models for Lord of the Rings (2001) even came to be called "big-atures" instead of "miniatures" they were so large; and even better than that, shots can be done digitally.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[21]
Auxillia
While the
Auxillia (Latin:
auxilia = supports) are not as famous as the legionaries, they were of major importance. Unlike the legionaries, the auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens.
.^ Possibly, the Romans ceded them control of cities they had conquered from them, yet this is little more than guesswork.
^ However, this does not count the Auxilia , units like cavalry and others that consisted of those who are not Roman citizens (though they gained citizenship from service).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The raid by the Roman legions was horrific and no less than 150,000 Epirots were carried away into slavery and sold.
According to
Tacitus [22] there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries.
.^ Since there are references to Englishmen but not to Scandinavians in the Varangian Guard of the Palaeologi , this may be last the time when Norse warriors actively traveled to Constantinople [cf.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As befitting his reputation, Pyrrhus arrived with an army of 25,000 men, drawn from various quarters of the successor states to Alexanders empire.
^ Treadgold estimates the total Army, legions plus auxiliaries, at around 385,000 men.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[23]Navy
The
Roman Navy (Latin:
Classis, lit.
.^ Meanwhile, Augustus had secured the Rhine-Danube frontier, and Claudius conquered most of Britain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Augustus originally wanted an Elbe-Danube frontier, but one of his armies (of three legions) was caught in a catastrophic ambush and destroyed.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Another of its duties was the protection of the very important maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates.
.^ Antiochus III of Syria, who had lost control of the sea in the naval war, meanwhile withdrew his troops from the coasts in Asia Minor, awaiting the Roman attack.
Nevertheless the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.
[24]Provinces
In the old days of the Republic the governorships of the provinces were traditionally
[25] awarded to members of the Senatorial Order. Augustus' reforms changed this policy.
Imperial provinces
.^ In 129 BC consul M. Aquilius created the province of Asia , thereby officially incorporating this wealthy territory into the imperial framework of the republic.
.^ This, as it happened, involved all the most organized states on the borders of Rome, excepting only Kush .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ While the Palaeologi, building on the success of Nicaea, reestablished Greek rule, only Epirus of the other successor states came back under Imperial control.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Ptolemy of Egypt was a 4 year old child, which had recently been made a ward of Rome (no doubt with an eye on the grain supply).
^ These modern systems, although voted in by popular majorities who like "free lunch" welfare politics, are run by bureaucrats whose behavior, of course, is "very rarely civil" either to contributors or beneficiaries.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Masinissa in turn now became King of Numidia, which meant the vitally important Numidian horsemen now would serve Rome in greater numbers than Carthage.
It was considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor, and Senators were forbidden to even visit this province. The governor of Aegyptus and the commanders of any legion stationed there were not from the Senatorial Order, but were chosen by the emperor from among the members of the lower
Equestrian Order.
Senatorial provinces
The old traditional policy continued largely unchanged in the
Senatorial provinces.
.^ Roman losses are not known but the sheer scale of the contests suggests they will have lost a large number of men.
^ Tripolitania apparently also came under Roman rule, but was kept separate from the African province.
^ The senate under the guidance of Fabius largely took control of matters.
.^ One Legion from the campaign, Legio X Fretensis , remains in Judaea, while the other two that were given to Vespasian at the beginning of the campaign, Legio V Macedonica and Legio XV Apollinaris , have returned to the stations on the Danube.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Legio III Gallica , Legio III Cyrenaica , Legio III Augusta pia fidelis , Legio III Italica concors , and Legio III Parthica .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Thus, Septimius Severus raised legions for his attack on the Parthians (195 AD), which quite logically are numbered Legio I Parthica, Legio II Parthica, & Legio III Parthica .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The status of a province was subject to change; it could change from Senatorial towards Imperial, or vice-versa. This happened several times
[25] during Augustus' reign.
.^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ His son Gallienus then endured one invasion and disaster after another, with the Empire actually beginning to break up.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ A new province of Macedonia was created mainly from the territories of Macedon, Thessaly and Epirus.
Religion
.^ A last chance to recoup things for the whole Empire came in 468, after Leo had gotten Ricimer to accept the Theodosian relative Anthemius as Western Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Although St. Patrick's solicitude for the Irish anywhere is understandable, Christians in general did not worry about enslaving pagans -- which is why the word "slave" is derived from "Slav," who were enslaved long before they converted to Christianity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The news caused panic in the Roman camp and most present fled towards the ships.
^ They were the first Roman dynasty with a surname, which shows some of the social changes that took place during the long period of the Macedonians.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ She could do little but accept defeat and cede control of Sardinia and Corsica to the Romans.
^ In fact so free from direct Roman domination were the allies that they could accept citizens exiled from Rome.
An individual could attend to both the Roman Gods representing his Roman identity and his own personal faith, which was considered part of his personal identity. There were periodic persecutions of various religions at various points in time, most notably that of Christians. As the historian
Edward Gibbon noted, however, most of the recorded histories of Christian persecutions come to us through the Christian church, which had an incentive to exaggerate the degree to which the persecutions occurred. The non-Christian contemporary sources only mention the persecutions passingly and without assigning great importance to them.
Imperial cult
.^ Emperors of the Roman and the so-called Byzantine Empires; Princes, Kings, and Tsars of Numidia, Judaea, Bulgaria, Serbia, Wallachia, & Moldavia; and the Sultâns of Rûm .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In time, the Emperor came to be regarded as superior to any mere king, as the reach and authority of many Emperors was indeed great beyond precedent or (local) comparison.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Al-Harith II himself, with the epithet "ibn Maria" and living in the time of Constantine, is likely to be the tribal chief who converted to Christianity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In the early days of the Roman republic all power would reside in the hands of the Roman aristocracy, the so-called patricians ( patricii ).
^ His colleague Aurelian then substantially restores the Empire, only to suffer assassination, initiating a new round of revolving Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, Christian Emperors, beginning with Constantine, would always be portrayed with halos , like saints, and were called the "Equal of the Apostles."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Roman Court now begins to adopt the structures and ritual of the Persian Court , where the Great King has always been semi-divine.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Alexander was killed after the overdue reality check of battle, against the newly aggressive Persians .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Recognising that the tide had turned against him, Pyrrhus returned home to Epirus.
.^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since Odoacer, de jure , was a faithful officer of the Emperor in Constantinople, one could say that the last institutional existence of the Western Empire surived until Odoacer was overthrown by the Ostrogoths in 493.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Usually, an emperor was deified after his death by his successor in an attempt by that successor to enhance his own prestige. This practice can be misunderstood, however, since "deification" was to the ancient world what canonization is to the Christian world. Likewise, the term "God" had a different context in the ancient world.
.^ Had she seen her dominance of the Mediterranean acknowledged as far as Syria and Egypt, a defeat by Macedon would rendered such Roman authority nil and void.
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The shadow of the Republic persisted during this period, and someone like Claudius could still dream of restoring full Republican government.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, the Romans were rather more successful than is usually thought.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ No Confucian venerated ancestors in a household shrine more devoutly than the pious Roman.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ But that is a key point: the Diaspora population is mostly going to be urban; but the urban population of the Roman Empire is unlikely to have been more than 20% of the whole.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ If the decadence of pagan religion and despotic emperors was going to be the cause of the "fall" of Rome, then it certainly should have fallen in the Crisis of the Third Century .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY, 235-284, 49 Years This map looks like it should be from the Fifth Century .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The complexity of the following period can only be appreciated, or even understood, by reviewing the " Crisis of the Third Century " chart.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Mithraism, although popular in the Army (only men were initiated), was not an Imperial or prestige cult, until this dedication, Deo Soli Invicto Mithrae , "to the god Mithras the Unconquered Sun."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ One major effect the wars had had on Roman society was to reduce the number of patricians significantly.
The central elements of the cult complex were next to a temple; a
theatre or
amphitheatre for gladiator displays and other games and a
public bath complex. Sometimes the imperial cult was added to the cults of an existing temple or celebrated in a special hall in the bath complex.
The seriousness of this belief is unclear.
.^ It was a sign of the magnanimity and humanity of Scipios that in victory he was able to show leniency, where some of his fellow Romans would have sought to utterly crush their helpless adversary.
^ Even the notoriously unreliable Roman cavalry gained some success.
^ Soon, Varangians would have little fear of traversing Russia and would begin raiding Roman territory and even attacking Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Seneca the Younger parodied the notion of apotheosis in his only known satire
The Pumpkinification of Claudius, in which the clumsy and ill-spoken
Claudius is not transformed into a god, but into a
pumpkin. In fact, bitter sarcasm was already effected at Claudius' funeral in 54.
[26]Absorption of foreign cults
.^ Mithraism, although popular in the Army (only men were initiated), was not an Imperial or prestige cult, until this dedication, Deo Soli Invicto Mithrae , "to the god Mithras the Unconquered Sun."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Once the new religion became the State Religion of Rome, the rigor with which Judaism had rejected the old gods now became public policy, to their own disability.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Mithraism considered Mithras to be a sun god, associated and assimilated with Sol Invictus , the "Unconquered Sun," whose cult existed independently of Mithras and had been promoted since Aurelian.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The worship of
Cybele was the earliest, introduced from around 200 BC.
Isis and
Osiris were introduced from Egypt a century later.
.^ That the earlier civilization didn't "fall" but merely became transformed is a truth that both academic and popular opinion still hasn't quite come to terms with.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When Hannibal stormed the town of Cannae ( Canne ) to gain possession of its important military stores, the Roman army closed in, trapping Hannibal in a very disadvantageous position.
^ Mithraism considered Mithras to be a sun god, associated and assimilated with Sol Invictus , the "Unconquered Sun," whose cult existed independently of Mithras and had been promoted since Aurelian.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Several of these were
Mystery cults.
.^ Rome at first resisted any appeals for help by the mercenary renegades, staying true to her obligations under the peace treaty.
^ In 312 BC by order of censor Appius Claudius Caecus, Rome began construction of the Via Appia, the first of her famous military highways.
^ In 298 BC the Lucanians in the south of Italy approached Rome for help against the Samnites who were invading their territory.
Controversial religions
Druids
Druids were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of
Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practice "druidical" rites.
Pliny reports
[27] that under
Tiberius the druids were suppressed—along with diviners and physicians—by a decree of the Senate, and
Claudius forbade their rites completely in AD 54.
[28]
Judaism
While
Judaism was largely accepted, it was on occasion subject to (mostly) local persecution.
Until the rebellion in Judea in AD 66, Jews were generally protected.
.^ While it seems natural and obvious to take Augustus as the successor to Julius Caesar and his new Imperial government as the successor to the Roman Republic, there was another way of looking at this.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ That was dangerous, indeed fatal, for the Republic; but in those terms Julius Caesar began the creation of the Roman Empire already as an "emperor."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The status of these communities was that they remained fairly independent of Rome.
^ Having expelled the Lucanian and Bruttian invaders he returned to Rome with his main force, leaving behind a protective garrison and some of the patrol vessels.
^ In essence Rome created a moral compact between herself and these towns, whereby she acted as a protective patron and they acted as her clients.
.^ There were, moreover, Latin cities which even allied with the Gauls against her, thereby forcing the rest of the Latins, however reluctantly, to throw themselves under the protection of Rome.
.^ If this is what the movie is referring to, it fails to distinguish between Britons, Picts, and Irish; and Ceretic is certainly in no need of being rescued by Romans for cruelty to those he ruled.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Related earlier history may be found at "Historical Background to Greek Philosophy" and "Hellenistic Monarchs" , and the "Consuls of the Roman Republic" .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Was the first act of the war the siege of Messana, by the joint forces of Carthage and Syracuse, the arrival of the Roman consular army under Appius Claudius made an end of it.
Christianity
.^ Gradually, the Limitanei fade from historical view and hardly seem to exist at all by the time German tribes cross the borders en masse in the Fifth Century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Even in the time of the Ptolemies , Alexandria already had a very large Jewish population.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Knowing their case futile, the Carthaginians took on the might of the Roman empire one last time.
.^ This confirmed that Italy rather than Romania would be the center of trade and naval power in the Christian Mediterranean.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would continue to do so for more than three centuries -- the first reference to Englishmen in the service of Romania was in 1088, the last in 1404 -- 316 years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Pope Innocent III wasn't too happy about it either, and the Crusaders earned excommunication for fighting Christians, for Venice, rather than Moslems, for Christendom.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Suetonius mentions passingly that:
"[during Nero's reign] Punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief" [30] but he does not explain for what they were punished.
.^ The effect of the 'Great Latin War' was to tighten Rome's grip upon Latium and to provide her with more lands upon which to settle her ever-increasing agricultural population.
[31] .^ Right from the start Rome distrusted Perseus as he had plotted against his younger brother Demetrius, assuring his execution for treason, during his fathers reign.
^ This no longer seems so admirable, and the Empire founded by Julius Caesar and Augustus, as a form of government, does not look like an advance in the course of human progress.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He had served as a tribune under Marcellus during the war against Carthage.
.^ The Empire, however, would never be able to remain strong without the themes, and their collapse at the end of the 11th century would be the end of Romania as a hegemonic power.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. CRISIS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 379-476, 97 Years The map shows the key incursions that would fatally undermine the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In the second century of the Christian era, the Empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilised portion of mankind.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Despite the rich literature of the 4th century, Diocletian never got a Tacitus or Suetonius, and what Ammianus Marcellinus may have said about him is now lost.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In the second century of the Christian era, the Empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilised portion of mankind.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
As the 4th century progressed, Christianity had become so widespread that it became officially tolerated, then promoted (
Constantine I), and in 380 established as the Empire's official religion (
Theodosius I).
.^ These are the commanders-in-chief of the Western Army (distiguished by purple color), with the Master of Soldiers becoming the effective "Generalissimo" of the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ More than the coup of Odoacer in 476, this signaled a real institutional change in the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In the Middle Ages, this was regarded as a triumphant period, when the Roman Empire was redeemed and ennobled with its conversion to and transformation by Christianity -- becoming a "Romania" whose name is now not even familiar as the name of the Roman Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[32] This would lead to the persecution of the traditional polytheistic religions that had previously characterized most of the Empire.
Languages
.^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since the Latin alphabet is used here, and since the Roman Empire originally used Latin as its universal language, never forgotten in Greek Romania, that is the practice here.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Second Samnite War The period between the Great Latin War and the Second Samnite War saw the two main military powers jostling for position on the Italian mainland.
^ Over time their powers were increasingly limited, as Venice evolved into an oligarchic Republic.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ There were shameful exceptions to this toleration, but through the Middle Ages the overwhelming majority of Church authorities staunchly condemned attacks on the Jews.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Although sacked by the Goths, the Huns, and the Lombards, Venetia remained the most important city of the region for most of the middle ages.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Vlach language of the Principalities, not a written language in the Middle Ages, came to be written in the Cyrillic alphabet .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The unified country itself became first "Roumania" or "Rumania," later further Latinized into "România," and soon the Cyrillic alphabet was traded in for the Latin alphabet, as the Roman roots of the people were increasingly emphasized.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Italians are now gone (there being the Schism and all), but there are also (modern) Romanians present, though they do not have their own monastery.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In Switzerland we do have Italian speakers, but there is also a separate Romance language, Romansh, part of the Rhaeto-Romance group ( Rätoromanische Sprache -- named after the Roman province of Raetia).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In the early days of the dynasty we get a benchmark on the survival of Classical and later Greek literature.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ These are the languages, our Classical languages of Western civilization, and their literature, that we do not want forgotten -- while they are in greater danger in our time than ever before: a Shakespeare with "little Latin and less Greek" is a scholar of Classics compared to most graduates of modern universities.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Keeping up appearances, Rome remained officially at war with Syracuse.
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ If the decadence of pagan religion and despotic emperors was going to be the cause of the "fall" of Rome, then it certainly should have fallen in the Crisis of the Third Century .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[33] .^ Afterwards, Carthage itself, although not deliberately destroyed as the Romans once did, simply fades from history.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In 152 BC a Roman delegation under P.Scipio Nasica did find in favour of Carthage and did order Masinissa to return some of the territory.
.^ In the movie, the Iazyges are called "Sarmatians," which they were, but the more general name obscures the unique experience of the Iazyges in being settled and assimilated as Roman soldiers.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ But the changes that take place are mostly, as they had been for some time, gradual.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Romans gradually increased their influence in Campania, founding colonies in strategic places, helping to secure Capua against any threat from the Samnites.
[34].
.^ The units, though most likely of superb quality, spoke different languages and had no experience of fighting alongside each other as an army.
^ Since the Latin alphabet is used here, and since the Roman Empire originally used Latin as its universal language, never forgotten in Greek Romania, that is the practice here.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, the Romans were rather more successful than is usually thought.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In Switzerland we do have Italian speakers, but there is also a separate Romance language, Romansh, part of the Rhaeto-Romance group ( Rätoromanische Sprache -- named after the Roman province of Raetia).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Faced with that choice it was little wonder Hiero chose the Romans rather than Greeces ancient Phoenician enemy.
.^ Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Septimius Severus himself was one of the two Roman Emperors ( Constantius Chlorus was the other) to die (a natural death) at York (Eboracum) in Britain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ While the Palaeologi, building on the success of Nicaea, reestablished Greek rule, only Epirus of the other successor states came back under Imperial control.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[35] Thus in the Eastern Province, as with all provinces, original languages were retained.
[36][37]
.^ They were the first Roman dynasty with a surname, which shows some of the social changes that took place during the long period of the Macedonians.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Yet for all his ability, Hamilcar never had enough troops under his command to do anything more than to harass and stifle Roman efforts.
^ Regulus however successfully harangued the Roman senators to continue the fight against her enemy at all cost.
[40][41] .^ Rome was to be one of the great civilizing forces of history, destined to spread Hellenistic culture into the far flung reaches of the ancient world.
) put in place by the
.^ Nothing is really known about the nature of this first Roman victory at sea other than that the corvus played a part.
^ Greek influence ended up predominating, but the Bulgars continued jealous of their autonomy -- the precedent of an autocephalous Church set the pattern for other Orthodox Churches, as in Russia , created under Roman auspices.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Septimius Severus himself was one of the two Roman Emperors ( Constantius Chlorus was the other) to die (a natural death) at York (Eboracum) in Britain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[34]
.^ Savage atrocities were committed against Greek and Roman slave owners alike.
^ Nonetheless, it stands to reason that 146 BC was one of the darkest years of Roman history.
^ Roman losses are not known but the sheer scale of the contests suggests they will have lost a large number of men.
[34] .^ Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Rome found itself invariably drawn into the machinations of Greek politics and wars.
[34][42] .^ It took a few more centuries before surnames became common among European Christians of all classes.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Christian churches of the period often look like piles of bowls or dark fruitcakes.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Had it not been for his genius the Second Punic War would never have lasted as long as it did or been of the scale and scope it took.
^ If at first this was rejected, Rome did eventually agree to such an alliance, recognising that whatever Pyrrhus plans, he was their joint enemy.
This is partly evident in the extent to which the derivative languages are spoken today.
.^ The units, though most likely of superb quality, spoke different languages and had no experience of fighting alongside each other as an army.
^ With the Latins, the Empire fragmented into multiple Greek and non-Greek contenders: Nicaea, Epirus, Trebizond, Bulgaria, and Serbia, not to mention the Turks .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ And indeed, where Greek and Latin are taught today, the student, as it happens, begins with Attic Greek and Ciceronian Latin.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[43]
.^ Rome no longer dominated a Latin alliance.
^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ While the conquest and sack of Constantinople have rightly been regarded as one of the worst cases of vandalism and betrayal in world history, a stab in the back against the state and the civilization that had been the repository and guardian of Classical, Western, and Christian culture during most of the Middle Ages, and an insult by Latin, Frankish, Western Europe against the Greek and Orthodox East, one thing must be admitted: This was not what the Crusaders had in mind.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Despite the loss of most of Europe and continuing Arab raids into Anatolia, the population and the economy of the empire were actually growing, and Nicephorus was able to start transplanting colonies of people from the east back into Greece.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ With Romes conquest of southern Italy, or Magna Graecia as it was known, she now invariably entered the contest of commercial interests on the side of the Greeks.
^ The great Carthaginian controlled much of southern Italy, but dotted throughout this territory were Roman fortresses, prepared to hold out and hindering his ability to manoeuvre.
.^ With less to show for its life in this period, the city fell to the Arabs in 698.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ That the gold coinage of the solidus still exists at all, however, is testimony to the fact that the prosperity and material culture of Romania never fell as far as it did in Francia .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Culture
.^ The treaty seems to have made a significant distinction between areas under direct Roman protection and cities who were mere allies of Rome.
^ Aftermath to the Fall of Carthage The immediately evident effect of Romes victory was that the city Utica was now made capital of the new Roman province of Africa.
^ The wall spanned five miles in circumference with nineteen gates, embracing all seven hills of Rome.
The city also had several
theatres.
[44] gymnasiums, and many
taverns,
baths and
brothels.
.^ If Rome now controlled the Italian peninsula, essentially there was three different categories of territory within her realm.
^ The competition for the throne in 193 was not very edifying, and absolutely none of the players appear in Gladiator , not even Pertinax, the prefect of the city of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The vast majority of the population lived in the city centre, packed into apartment blocks.
.^ Roman domes could do what most Roman temples did not try to do.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The city of Rome itself still remained safe.
^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centres
[45] and
wine and
oil were imported from abroad. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers.
.^ Roughly 14,000 Greek ramshackle infantry, consisting to a large part of freed slaves, and 600 cavalry faced 23,000 Roman infantry and 3,500 cavalry.
^ From the few and questionable foreign marriages of the Macedonians , with the Comneni we find a large number of well attested ones, many with Crusaders but one making connections as distant as Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Savage atrocities were committed against Greek and Roman slave owners alike.
^ Roughly 14,000 Greek ramshackle infantry, consisting to a large part of freed slaves, and 600 cavalry faced 23,000 Roman infantry and 3,500 cavalry.
Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the
villas.
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the
Greeks.
[46] In
architecture and
sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the
arch and the
dome.
The centre of the early social structure was the family,
[47] which was not only marked by
blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas.
[48] The
Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death.
[49] .^ The patricians put up a brave struggle to defend their privileges.
^ The Later Conflict of the Orders The Gauls having withdrawn and Rome being the confirmed leader of Latium, the old struggle between the patricians and the plebeians renewed in intensity again.
Thus, such plebian
gentes were the first formed, imitating their patrician counterparts.
[50]Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were
slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally
mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation.
.^ I am not familiar with the basis of this estimate, but I am familiar with the difficulty of estimating Roman population at all.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[51][52] .^ By about the time of Manzikert, there were interesting new recruits to the Varangian Guard.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Hannibal is at the gates !) (211 BC) No doubt there was a fair share of panic at the news that Romes most terrible enemy was before the very walls of the city.
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[53]
.^ In the movie, the Iazyges are called "Sarmatians," which they were, but the more general name obscures the unique experience of the Iazyges in being settled and assimilated as Roman soldiers.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By order of the senate the city was razed to the ground, the place was ritually cursed and the soil was strewn with salt.
Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping,
wrestling,
boxing and
racing.
Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities.
[54]
In the countryside, pastimes also included fishing and hunting.
Board games played in Rome included
Dice (Tesserae or
Tali), Roman Chess (
Latrunculi), Roman
Checkers (Calculi),
Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and
Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.
[54] There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,
Clothing, dining, and the arts
.^ More than the coup of Odoacer in 476, this signaled a real institutional change in the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Sulpicius had started his campaign too late in the year, had largely inexperienced troops under his command and was showing little initiative of his own.
The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class.
.^ Against such a background of hardship and helplessness at the hands of the nobles, the commoners (called the 'plebeians ' ( plebeii ) organized themselves against the patricians.
^ It was most likely after the First Secession in 494 BC that the patricians recognized the plebeians rights to hold meetings and to elect their officers, the 'tribunes of the people' ( tribuni plebis ).
[56] A magistrate would wear the
tunica augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with broad stripes, called
tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the
toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border.
.^ In fact Rome possessed several times that number of men of fighting age.
[57]
The
toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The
toga pulla was worn when in mourning. Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandal, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Men typically wore a
toga, and women a
stola. The woman's
stola looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.
[57].^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This finally ended with Diocletian, who picked up reforming the Empire, militarily, politically, and religiously, where Aurelian had left off.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ III. THIRD EMPIRE, MIDDLE "ROMANIA," EARLY "BYZANTIUM," 610 AD-1059 AD, Era of Diocletian 327-776, 449 years .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Since the names of the Ghassanids include the familiar Arabic patronynmic element, ibn , the genealogy of the dynasty could actually be constructed without too much difficulty.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[58] .^ Later versions thus increase the dramatic and miraculous elements of the event, using what later would become the most symbolic of Christianity, the Cross.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, revealing the general militarization of late Roman government.
.^ The "Fourth Empire" begins with a blow, from an Islâm reinvigorated by the Turks, which represents not only a further diminution of the Empire, but a portent of the actual collapse and end of the Empire altogether.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The musical chairs of murders did not help prepare the Empire for increased activity by the Germans and Persians.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[59] .^ What is called the Servian Wall, as Romans attributed it to King Servius Tullius (who much more likely only built the agger earthworks on the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline Hills), is generally believed to have been built after the retreat by the Gauls.
^ The Early Conflict of the Orders The revolt against King Tarquin and Porsenna was led entirely by the Roman nobility, so it was essentially only the Roman aristocrats (the patricii ) who held any power.
^ As the remnants of the Late Roman Army were settled on the land (like the earlier Limitanei ), there were also standing forces that accompanied the Emperor, like the old Comitatenses .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[60]
Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet,
Horace mentions another Roman favourite, the
olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives,
endives, and smooth
mallows provide sustenance."
[61] The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered a staple drink,
[62] consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for
alcoholism, whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals.
.^ The very people, indeed, thanks to whom we possess Classical Greek and its literature.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Yet no sooner did Rome possess a commander not utterly inferior to Hannibal, then all her superiority in force of arms was made to tell.
^ Carthage had some 120 quinqueremes, whereas Rome possessed at best a few cruisers furnished by her Greek ports in southern Italy.
^ Yet the Hannibal Barca, one of the supreme military geniuses of history, was not to surrender himself to the indignity of being dragged through the streets of Rome in chains.
As the empire expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry.
.^ A story arose that Constantine sleeps under the Golden Gate (like Barbarossa under the Kyffhäuser), or that he would reenter the City through that Gate.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Lucretius, in his
On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate
science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others,
Juvenal[63] and
Persius. Many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.
.^ During the honeymoon period we get the completion of St. Mark's Cathedral -- a mature Romania seeding its culture into the maturing Venice.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ But the losses suffered by the Romans at Ticinus and Trebia made such minor victories pale to insignificance.
^ Aftermath to the Fall of Carthage The immediately evident effect of Romes victory was that the city Utica was now made capital of the new Roman province of Africa.
^ Had the Carthaginians the superior naval skills and greater maneouvrability in their superior vessels, it appeared the sheer number and the quality of Roman soldiers among the Roman fleet which made any Carthaginian victory impossible.
Detail of a mosaic found in Pompeii. The figure on the left is playing the double
aulos, double-reed pipes; the figure in the middle,
cymbalum, small, bronze cymbals; and on the right, the
tympanum, a tambourine-like drum.
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from
Greek μουσική (
mousike), "(art) of the
Muses".
[65] Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres.
.^ Eagles were used by many to imply Roman antecedents, but the double headed eagle was adopted in particular by the Holy Roman Empire , by Imperial Russia , and by the Serbs .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would be Roman allies until disappearing in the 11th century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the
civil engineering and building
construction technology became developed and refined.
.^ Indeed, the Romans were rather more successful than is usually thought.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The raid by the Roman legions was horrific and no less than 150,000 Epirots were carried away into slavery and sold.
^ It would be more than fifteen years, until in 150 BC the remaining 300 of these captives were freed and returned to Greece.
[66] .^ While the Palaeologi, building on the success of Nicaea, reestablished Greek rule, only Epirus of the other successor states came back under Imperial control.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The treaty seems to have made a significant distinction between areas under direct Roman protection and cities who were mere allies of Rome.
Education
Main article:
Roman school.^ The Roman legionary system had once again triumphed over the Greek phalanx.
^ The tragic irony of Greek history is that Greece at last found a lasting peace under Roman domination; a peace she would most likely never have accomplished on her own.
^ Furthermore Carthage had contributed free gifts of grain to Roman military operations in the east.
[67] .^ He eventually marched his newly trained rag tag army of raw levies and mercenaries out into the open plain of Bagradas (Medjerda) where he offered battle.
^ In Gaul Hasdrubal began recruiting, building up an army in preparation for a second invasion of Italy.
^ Meanwhile the Roman army on land gradually edged Carthaginian forces out of the centre of the isle of Sicily in hard, increasingly bitter fighting.
Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction
[68] from their mothers in the art of
spinning,
weaving, and
sewing.
Education nominally began at the age of six. During the next six to seven years, both boys and girls were taught the basics of
reading,
writing and
arithmetic.
.^ In practice this meant they would act as supreme judges and their collected judgments would be used to build the code of laws over the twelve months they were in office.
^ In the Middle Ages, the Greeks used their own word for "Greeks," Hellênes , to mean the ancient pagan Greeks, as the word is used in the New Testament -- sometimes the Latin word for Greeks would be borrowed, as Graikoi , if this was needed for contemporary reference, as for the language.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Exceptions would be for Greek words that simply have Latin translations.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Oratory was an art to be practised and learnt, and good orators commanded respect. To become an effective orator was one of the objectives of
education and
learning. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.
[68]Economy
The imperial government was, as all governments, interested in the issue and control of the currency in circulation.
.^ The conversion of the Bulgars, indeed, was a complicated political act, with sophisticated negotiations that played the Popes off the Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The sons, however, ended up with no heirs themselves, and the last family member on the throne, Julian, was one of the cousins who had escaped the massacre.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
By issuing coins with the image of an heir his legitimacy and future succession was proclaimed and reinforced. Political messages and imperial propaganda such as proclamations of victory and acknowledgements of loyalty also appeared in certain issues.
.^ The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ His colleague Aurelian then substantially restores the Empire, only to suffer assassination, initiating a new round of revolving Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[69] However the authority of the Senate was mainly in name only.
.^ That the gold coinage of the solidus still exists at all, however, is testimony to the fact that the prosperity and material culture of Romania never fell as far as it did in Francia .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This was however not accomplished without the utter humiliation of the Rhodian envoys who prostrated themselves before the senators, pleading tearfully for their city not to be destroyed.
.^ More so, had some of these interventions seen Tarentum act in selfish disregard for the interests of other Greek cities in Magna Graecia, then these cities had come to view Tarentum with suspicion.
^ In a brief war the Umbrian city of Narnia was conquered and saw a Roman colony established in its place.
^ It appears that the colonist forfeited some of their privileges as full Roman citizens in exchange for land in these colonies.
.^ While the Palaeologi, building on the success of Nicaea, reestablished Greek rule, only Epirus of the other successor states came back under Imperial control.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The Senatorial mints were governed by officials of the Senatorial treasury.
Demography
.^ But that is a key point: the Diaspora population is mostly going to be urban; but the urban population of the Roman Empire is unlikely to have been more than 20% of the whole.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The idea common now that the Roman Empire fell in 476, wouldn't have made sense to Bede.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ If the population of the Empire was as much as 20% urban, and Jews were 10% of the population, then Jews would have to constitute nearly half of the population of every city, especially including Rome itself (with a population of a million or more people).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[72] .^ They would be Roman allies until disappearing in the 11th century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The areas set aside for particular units became the themes , which remained the military bedrock of Romania until the end of the 11th century and soon replaced the old Roman provinces as the administrative divisions of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[72][74].
History
Augustus (27 BC–AD 14)
The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
The
Battle of Actium resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of
Mark Antony and
Cleopatra.
.^ Octavian sole Ruler of Rome .
^ After the Battle of Actium which resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of Mark Antony and Cleopatra , Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, continued or began a fullscale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters.- Roman Empire at AllExperts 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: Original source]
^ After some political and military developments, Octavian took the province of Africa away from Lepidus and took possession of the Greek-colonized island of Sicilia (modern Sicily).
.^ The dictator Critolaus, who was fervently anti-Roman, had come to power in the city.
.^ He used his consular office to block legislation put forward by the tribunes of the people in favour of the plebeians.
^ More so he was granted proconsular powers, something hitherto only given to consuls after their term in office.
^ In 356 BC Rome saw the first plebeian dictator take office.
.^ It would be more than fifteen years, until in 150 BC the remaining 300 of these captives were freed and returned to Greece.
^ In 330 BC a Lucanian assassin stabbed him before he could consolidate his power in Italy.
.^ The Roman Empire "officially" begins by tradition in 27 BC when Octavian receives the title "Augustus" -- which then becomes the name by which we know him.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ BC) War against Antiochus Rome no longer had any troops in Greece, yet it was clear that the regional powers of Greece had been allotted their territories according to Roman will.
^ For his naval preparations came to a sudden when news of a powerful Roman fleet sailing into the Adriatic to repel him reached his court.
[75]
.^ The senate reluctantly gave in, but did not grant Scipio the right of using the normal means of levying consular troops.
^ An imperator was someone with a military command and imperium , which meant both military and civil authority in the area of his command.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[76] .^ The Roman Army under Augustus contained 28 Legions ( Legio , Legiones ), not counting the Praetorian Guard.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
These provinces were classified as
imperial provinces.
.^ The senate under the guidance of Fabius largely took control of matters.
The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around 50) because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28.
.^ It was always least likely to receive reinforcements and any victories gained would scarce get a mention in Rome, as long as Hannibal was in Italy.
^ No doubt it was the hope of the Carthaginians that Rome might keep the adventurer from Epirus busy in Italy, leaving them free to conquer all of Sicily.
These cohorts became known as the
Praetorian Guard.
.^ The people of Rome granted him a state funeral within the city walls.
^ Instead, once back in Rome, Mancinus was removed from the list of senators.
^ His warnings went unheard until in 172 BC he traveled to Rome himself and presented to the senate his warning of the danger Perseus represented.
[75] The Senate refused the offer, which, in effect, functioned as a popular ratification of his position within the state. Octavian was also granted the title of "Augustus" by the senate,
[77] and took the title of
Princeps, or "first citizen".
[76]
As the adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this name.
Caesar was a component of his family name.
.^ There is no evidence of this, Caesar himself had no descendants, and the other heirs were pretty much wiped out by 69 AD (though the movie actually says that the unrelated Tiberius was the last of the ruling Caesars!- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By 220 BC almost all the Gallic tribes had submitted to Roman rule.
^ This institution continues for some centuries, and there never was a subsequent question that the Emperor might become a King, as had been widely feared, expected, or desired with Julius Caesar.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The dynasty of Stephan Dushan is followed by two families of princes.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The first Dynasty with a family name will be the Ducases in the 11th century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Unfortunately, Titus's brother Domitian was not quite of the same stamp, and then went on to reign longer than his father and brother.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession.
.^ Ricimer may not have really wanted it to succeed, and it wasn't long before he got rid of Anthemius.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The result has the look of a nice balance of power, but there is no telling how long that might have lasted.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ BC) It wasnt long before Rome posted a consul (Cato the Elder) to Spain with an army to try and quell the unrest.
In AD 13, the point was settled beyond question.
.^ Even if the concilium plebis had gained the right to pass laws, the ordinary citizens had no voice in those meetings.
^ The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[79] Within a year, Augustus was dead.
Tiberius to Alexander Severus (14–235)
The Roman Empire in 117 AD
Augustus was succeeded by his stepson
Tiberius, the son of his wife
Livia from her first marriage.
.^ This ill feeling between Rome and the Aetolian League should have far reaching consequences, which at the time most likely no one could have foreseen.
^ The family of the Julio-Claudians seems like one of the most complicated in history.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Rome now had become one the great powers of the ancient world.
.^ Caligula and Nero are descendants of Augustus, through his daughter Julia (from his first marriage); but Claudius and Nero are also descendants of Mark Antony, who of course committed suicide, shortly before Cleopatra, rather than be captured after his defeat by Augustus.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ All of these marriages produced children with living modern descendants, especially among the Hapsburgs and the royal family of Spain, as can be traced at the linked genealogies.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Caligula and Nero, and Robert Graves's version of Claudius, are objects of endless fascination, moralizing, guilty pleasure, and not-so-guilty pleasure.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "
Julio-Claudian Dynasty".
Vespasian commissioned the
Colosseum in Rome.
.^ Gracchus impact on Spain was so significant that the relative peace, established prior to his departure in 177 BC was to last for some 25 years.
However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterised by paranoia and slander.
.^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The main line of the Palaeologi of Montferrat continued until the death of the Marchioness Margaret in 1556.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The lines of Princes continued, but by 1711 the Sult.ân began to sell the seats to Greek tax farmers, a destructive practice that continued until 1821.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Caligula started out well, but quickly became insane.
.^ There followed two days of skirmishing before the armies met in battle.
[80]
.^ However, Marcus Claudius Marcellus who had been on his way with an army to deal with the troubles in Sicily, was diverted as news reached him of the disaster at Cannae.
.^ The entire Army, therefore, was more like 300,000 men, less than half of what it would number in the Late Empire .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ A very poor excuse for an "empire," Trebizond spent much of its existence in vassalage to the Mongols and Turks who ruled the plateau behind it.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Old and ill, Heraclius had to watch his life's work largely melt away, while people said it was the Judgment of God because he had married his niece.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The last Western Emperor really worthy of the name was probably Majorian, who was a military man in his own right and operated with success in Gaul and Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant, and committed suicide in 68.
.^ He had served as a tribune under Marcellus during the war against Carthage.
^ In a brief war the Umbrian city of Narnia was conquered and saw a Roman colony established in its place.
^ The First Slave War It was in the very same year of Scipios election to the consulship that his consular colleague, Fulvius Flacchus, was required to intervene in Sicily.
.^ It took a little time for Septimius to put down all the would-be Emperors in the provinces, but he did so with determination and ferocity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The units of the Eastern Mobile Army all are commanded by their own Master of Soldiers, with two units as "Soldiers of the Emperor's Presence."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The nimbus is not used for the Latin Emperors in the genealogy because, as Roman Catholics, they would have acknowledged Papal supremacy to a degree that the Orthodox Emperors in Constantinople never would.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Thus the empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.
[81] .^ The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ For three years Pyrrhus fought in Sicily, at first with great success, yet finally reaching a stalemate at the impregnable Carthaginian fortress of Lilybaeum.
These events showed that any successful general could legitimately claim a right to the throne.
[82]
Vespasian, though a successful emperor, continued the weakening of the Senate which had been going on since the reign of Tiberius.
.^ In Gaul Hasdrubal began recruiting, building up an army in preparation for a second invasion of Italy.
Titus, Vespasian's successor, quickly proved his merit, although his short reign was marked by disaster, including the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in
Pompeii.
.^ None of the messengers ever succeeded in reaching Hannibal, leaving him unable to act decisively as he remained clueless as to his brothers intentions.
^ So powerful was still the name Hannibal, that no general wanted to be measured in open battle with him.
Having exceedingly poor relations with the senate, Domitian was murdered in September of 96.
The next century came to be known as the period of the "
Five Good Emperors", in which the successions were peaceful and the Empire was prosperous. Each emperor of this period was adopted by his predecessor.
.^ The "Five Good Emperors" (in boldface) became the ideal of generations, all the way to Gibbon, for peaceful and benevolent government.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They demanded that the Roman constitution be amended, whereby one of the consuls and a significant proportion of seats in the Roman senate be set aside for Latins.
^ After the restoration of Greek rule in Constantinople, a claim to the Roman throne passed down through the descendants of Baldwin II. Charles of Anjou , who had his own designs on Romania, married a daughter to Baldwin's son Philip.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In Aetolia the Romans granted their support to factions who set about massacring suspected friends of the Macedonian cause.
.^ Venice was obviously not claiming 3/8 of the Empire of Trajan, but of the much reduced mediaeval Romania (this looks like part of the conspiracy of ignore the word "Romania" in Roman and "Byzantine" studies).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In any case, Trajan had added upper Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Dacia to the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Alliances with several Umbrian cities were entered into.
^ Thomas never took the obvious step of declaring himself the new Emperor in succession to his brother, and he turned over Monembasia to the Pope in 1461.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Other related peoples, the Patzinaks and Cumans, followed the Bulgars off the steppe and into the Balkans, though not permanently south of the Danube.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Pax Romana seems real enough in certain places, but there were not many reigns without some major military action.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Antoninus Pius became the only Roman Emperor in 1500 years to be called "the Pious," but we really know precious little about his reign.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Of particular interest in the disposition of the Legions in the reign of Antoninus Pius is Legio VI Victrix .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Gradually, the Limitanei fade from historical view and hardly seem to exist at all by the time German tribes cross the borders en masse in the Fifth Century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In the reign of Marcus Aurelius the Prefect of Legio VI Victrix will be one Lucius Artorius Castus.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The "Five Good Emperors" (in boldface) became the ideal of generations, all the way to Gibbon, for peaceful and benevolent government.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This may simply illustrate the principle that goodness and peace (the height of the "Pax Romana") is boring.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Pax Romana seems real enough in certain places, but there were not many reigns without some major military action.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ As it turned out, things went too well.
^ Nicephorus ended up killed in battle against the Bulgars , and his son Stauracius, proclaimed Emperor, turned out to be paralyzed from a spinal wound.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Marcus's only real failure was to leave the Empire to his worthless son, Commodus -- dying in a place of modern note, Vienna ( Vindobona ).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity before being murdered in 192.
The
Severan Dynasty, which lasted from 193 until 235, included several increasingly troubled reigns.
.^ Caligula, "little boot," or Caracalla, "little hood" -- both names given them as children in the army camps of their fathers (Germanicus and Septimius Severus, respectively).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Roman Citizenship to all free persons, 212 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The inhabitants of these old, settled areas held full Roman citizenship.
^ The Pope thus became, as Popes had long desired, the ruler of all the Roman Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Increasingly unstable and autocratic, Caracalla was assassinated by
Macrinus, who succeeded him, before being assassinated and succeeded by
Elagabalus.
Alexander Severus, the last of the dynasty, was increasing unable to control the army, and was assassinated in 235.
Crisis of the Third Century and the later emperors (235–395)
.^ Emperors are commonly known by particular parts of their names, or by nicknames, e.g.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The areas set aside for particular units became the themes , which remained the military bedrock of Romania until the end of the 11th century and soon replaced the old Roman provinces as the administrative divisions of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Whatever the cause, the climate would adversely impact the population at a time, on top of the deaths from the Plague, when the lack would gravely affect the fate of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[83] .^ This was during the reign of Irene, who had taken the throne exclusively for herself, the only Empress ever to do so, by having her son Constantine VI blinded (he died, too).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Valerian's relatively long reign ended with the unparalleled ignominy of being captured by Shapur I -- the only Roman Emperor captured by an enemy until Romanus IV in 1071.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This finally ended with Diocletian, who picked up reforming the Empire, militarily, politically, and religiously, where Aurelian had left off.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire.- Roman Empire at AllExperts 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The two remaining Augusti divided the Empire again in the pattern established by Diocletian: Constantine becoming Augustus of the Western Roman Empire and Licinius Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire.- Roman Empire at AllExperts 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC en.allexperts.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Gibbon wrote a truly monumental account of the story of the Empire, but he doesn't really propose us a "theory" of the causes of the fall, as most historians would do, later on.- The Oil Drum: Europe | "Peak Civilization": The Fall of the Roman Empire 28 January 2010 0:46 UTC europe.theoildrum.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The entire Army, therefore, was more like 300,000 men, less than half of what it would number in the Late Empire .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So, while we think of "Augustus" as the name of the first Emperor, it was simply a title, whose import was well remembered by subsequent Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ These are the commanders-in-chief of the Western Army (distiguished by purple color), with the Master of Soldiers becoming the effective "Generalissimo" of the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ That was dangerous, indeed fatal, for the Republic; but in those terms Julius Caesar began the creation of the Roman Empire already as an "emperor."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Thomas never took the obvious step of declaring himself the new Emperor in succession to his brother, and he turned over Monembasia to the Pope in 1461.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
This constituted what is now known as the
Tetrarchy ("rule of four").
.^ The cultural and intellectual sea change of the period, soon followed by Diocletian's reforms and then Constantine, usher in the distinctive world of Late Antiquity .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Septimius Severus himself was one of the two Roman Emperors ( Constantius Chlorus was the other) to die (a natural death) at York (Eboracum) in Britain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By 308, with Severus killed by Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantine proclaimed Augustus by his troops, Diocletian was called to a conference at Carnuntum on the Danube in Upper (Superior) Pannonia (just down the river from modern Vienna, Roman Vindobona).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Gauls were commanded by a Carthaginian called Hamilcar, who was still at large after the end of the Second Punic War.
^ A story arose that Constantine sleeps under the Golden Gate (like Barbarossa under the Kyffhäuser), or that he would reenter the City through that Gate.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Al-Harith II himself, with the epithet "ibn Maria" and living in the time of Constantine, is likely to be the tribal chief who converted to Christianity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Unfortunately, the Mobile Army as often was used for civil wars as for backing up the frontiers, and it was natural for Emperors to neglect the Limitanei and reinforce their own personal forces.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Since this is more or less the Christian critique of pagan society, we have the curious case of critics maintaining the perspective of Christian moralism even while rejecting Christianity as the appropriate response.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ But King Philip V, having not received one scrap of support from Syria in his recent war against Rome, now had no intention of lending support to Antiochus.
^ Rome wars against King Antiochus II of Seleucia 191 Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae.
^ Aftermath of War against Antiochus What is astonishing is that Rome had managed achieve dominance of the Greek world in only two major battles; Cynoscephalae and Magnesia.
Jovian is remembered for ceding terrorities won from the Persians, dating back to
Trajan, and for restoring the privileges of Christianity, before dying in 364.
.^ With Valentinian, and his brother Valens with whom he divided the Empire, the Christian nature of Romania was sealed.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When Valentinian died, Gratian had already been raised to the status of Augustus and clearly was the legitimate Emperor of the West.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
In 365,
Procopius managed to bribe two
legions, who then proclaimed him Augustus.
.^ Yet nothing more ever came of it other than two skirmishes between the two sides.
^ This small town, whose military garrison never exceeded 8,000, was to go down in history for resisting continuous Roman attacks for nine years.
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ There is no doubt that this was needed for the challenges of the Age -- indeed, it would prove inadequate to concentrate what would in fact be needed against the Visigoths and the other migrating German tribes.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The allied Latin forces, led by Aristhodemus, met at Aricia with an army which Porsenna had sent against them under the command of his son Arruns.
^ That he died shortly thereafter steals the thunder from this act, but it is noteworthy.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Succession did not go as planned.
.^ When Valentinian died, Gratian had already been raised to the status of Augustus and clearly was the legitimate Emperor of the West.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. REVIVAL AND ASCENDENCY, 802-1059, 257 years 400 years after the opportunity might have originally presented itself, a German finally claimed the title of Roman Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Under the Palaeologi, starting in 1383, the Despot (sometimes more than one) was usually a son or brother of the Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Holy Roman Empire hands down its own traditions through the surviving families, and it has never suffered a conquest by any foreign power.
^ The mysterious invaders proved to be two Germanic tribes, the Teutons and Cimbri, the vanguard of that great German migration which was destined to change the face and history of Europe.- Imperial Rome 22 September 2009 21:19 UTC www.shsu.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Germans Sarmatians, Arabs, Armenians, Persians, Moors; all were not subjects of the empire and now stood to the Roman army in the same relation as once the auxiliaries had done.
.^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Knowing their case futile, the Carthaginians took on the might of the Roman empire one last time.
^ One was that the Goths remained a unified and aggressive tribe within the Empire, ready to begin rampaging again at any time.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Romans suffered several reverses as they sought to fight in unfamiliar terrain against a truly fearsome enemy.
^ The first war against Macedon had introduced Roman interest yet further into Greece than they had been after the Illyrian wars.
.^ Regulus however successfully harangued the Roman senators to continue the fight against her enemy at all cost.
^ Hamilcar was leading an effective defensive campaign against superior Roman forces.
^ BC proved a year of indecisive campaigns which led to no tangible advances.
.^ Unfortunately, the Mobile Army as often was used for civil wars as for backing up the frontiers, and it was natural for Emperors to neglect the Limitanei and reinforce their own personal forces.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ However, King Antiochus was well aware of the disparity in quality of the two armies facing each other.
^ He found himself held in check by two armies, a Punic force commanded by Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and a Numidian force, commanded by their King Syphax.
.^ King Antiochus himself led a cavalry charge which threw the Roman left into disarray.
^ The resulting battle was close and hard fought but turned into a catastrophic rout, with Valens himself falling.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The defeat the Spaniards suffered when lured into an ambush was to have been a crushing one.
.^ At the Battle of Callinicus, which took place some 3 miles from Larissa ( Larisa ), the entire Roman consular force was put to rout by the army of Perseus.
^ Battle of the Zama The two armies commanded by the two greatest commanders of the age met at Zama.
^ In two battles Rome had lost over 30,000 men.
.^ This ill feeling between Rome and the Aetolian League should have far reaching consequences, which at the time most likely no one could have foreseen.
.^ Now in the place of Valens, his uncle, the Emperor Gratian established Theodosius the Spaniard in the Eastern Empire.- JORDANES DESCRIBES THE GOTHS' ENTRY AND WANDERINGS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.shsu.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Roman Empire "officially" begins by tradition in 27 BC when Octavian receives the title "Augustus" -- which then becomes the name by which we know him.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Yet in 610 the character and problems of the Roman Empire would not have been unfamiliar to Theodosius the Great.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Another was that Honorius and Arcadius, the two sons between whom Theodosius divided the Empire, were young and inexperienced.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The chaos that had threatened in some earlier successions (in 69 and 193) now arrived in 238, when we can say that there were five Emperors in one year.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Roman gamble of sending a twenty five year old aggrieved son, who had never ascended higher than the office of aedile in politics, to command the Spanish legions had paid off.
.^ In all of 149 and 148 BC the Roman troops made little progress against a city which had only recently surrendered them all its armaments.
^ Later in 407, the usurper Constantine took his troops out of Britain, simultaneously to secure Gaul and to establish himself as Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ After Roman Britain disappeared from history, when the usurper Constantine "III" took his troops to Gaul, Bede's History of the English Church and People is just about the first that we then hear of it, three hundred years later.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Gratian fled, but was assassinated.
.^ The Eastern Emperor Valens acknowledged him with the provision that Valentinian's sixteen year old son Gratian serve in that capacity until Valentinian II was somewhat older.- State Church Of The Roman Empire 28 January 2010 0:46 UTC bswett.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Though by the time of Augustus, after the lengthy civil wars which had seen huge numbers of men at arms, the length of service had fallen back to between 6 and 10 years again.
^ He wrote a long work of fifteen books criticizing the Christians; but it was ordered burned by Emperors Valentinian III and Theodosius II in 448, and only fragments remain.- Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 by Sanderson Beck 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.san.beck.org [Source type: Original source]
Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition, although Negotiations were unfruitful.
.^ This was the same Marcellus who had already achieved the spolia opima when campaigning against the Gauls.
In 392
Valentinian II was murdered, and shortly thereafter
Arbogast arranged for the appointment of
Eugenius as emperor.
However, the eastern emperor Theodosius I refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius.
.^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Tripolitania apparently also came under Roman rule, but was kept separate from the African province.
.^ [Sozomen VII, xxix] The Catholic Encyclopedia says: "Theodosius stands out as the destroyer of heresy and paganism, as the last sovereign of the undivided empire."- State Church Of The Roman Empire 28 January 2010 0:46 UTC bswett.com [Source type: Original source]
^ A very poor excuse for an "empire," Trebizond spent much of its existence in vassalage to the Mongols and Turks who ruled the plateau behind it.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The Qaghan Boris took the Christian name Michael (though both names would be used in the future), but retained a status comparable to the Roman Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The idea common now that the Roman Empire fell in 476, wouldn't have made sense to Bede.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He knows that the Empire is now centered in Christian Constantinople, and his awareness of this is strong enough that it actually erases the existence of the last Western Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Another was that Honorius and Arcadius, the two sons between whom Theodosius divided the Empire, were young and inexperienced.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ They would be Roman allies until disappearing in the 11th century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Of all the blows the Roman power, the latter would prove to be one of the worst.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Curious how the attitude stays the same despite the changes in culture, faith, politics, etc.- Roman Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Well, the first two hundred years of Roman history do make a pretty compact cultural and historical unit.- Roman Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Decline of the Western Roman Empire (395–476)
Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire (simplified), showing the Battle of Adrianople.
.^ The last Western Emperor really worthy of the name was probably Majorian, who was a military man in his own right and operated with success in Gaul and Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ A last chance to recoup things for the whole Empire came in 468, after Leo had gotten Ricimer to accept the Theodosian relative Anthemius as Western Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Thus, the unity of the Eastern Army was focused more directly on the Emperor himself, which may have helped the Eastern Empire avoid the situation in the West where the Emperors became mere figureheads.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ A last chance to recoup things for the whole Empire came in 468, after Leo had gotten Ricimer to accept the Theodosian relative Anthemius as Western Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. CRISIS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 379-476, 97 Years The map shows the key incursions that would fatally undermine the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As the final end of the Roman Empire, it was a much more revolutionary and catastrophic change than the "fall" of the Western Empire in 476, in which power remained in the same hands of the current magister militum .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
That year, Orestes refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy.
.^ LAST WESTERN EMPERORS [names in brackets not recognized by East] .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The last Western Emperor really worthy of the name was probably Majorian, who was a military man in his own right and operated with success in Gaul and Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So in 476, Orestes and his son were then deposed by the German Odoacer (who originally had been in the guard of Anthemius), who decided to do without a figurehead Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As the final end of the Roman Empire, it was a much more revolutionary and catastrophic change than the "fall" of the Western Empire in 476, in which power remained in the same hands of the current magister militum .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ For when the Samnite general was presented with the two Romans he simply rejected any idea of punishing them and sent them back to Rome as free men.
^ Only Odoacer in Italy vaguely acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty -- we don't know what allegiance to Constantinople, if any, remained in the Roman pocket in northern Gaul.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When the Turks had manifestly broken through and the Fall of the City imminent, the Emperor reportedly threw off the Imperial Regalia and disappeared into the thick of the fight.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Zeno soon received two deputations.
.^ Knowing their case futile, the Carthaginians took on the might of the Roman empire one last time.
^ Only Odoacer in Italy vaguely acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty -- we don't know what allegiance to Constantinople, if any, remained in the Roman pocket in northern Gaul.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The nimbus is not used for the Latin Emperors in the genealogy because, as Roman Catholics, they would have acknowledged Papal supremacy to a degree that the Orthodox Emperors in Constantinople never would.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ He didn't even recognize the Emperor who "fell," Romulus Augustulus, as a successor of Augustus (neither did the East, for that matter).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ This problem reached a head when, rather than working together to get things organized again, Nepos was chased out to Dalmatia by Orestes, who assumed command and then put his own son, a child -- Romulus the "little Augustus" -- on the throne.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Zeno granted Odoacer's request. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East.
.^ King Prusias in turn had great use for a man of Hannibals talents, as in 186 BC he engaged in a war with Pergamum.
^ Odoacer in fact was eventually deposed (from Ravenna, of course) by Goths, the Ostrogoths under Theodoric.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By 493 Theodoric the Ostrogoth, invited by the Emperor Anastasius, had taken out Odoacer in Italy.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ It is then natural that Classicists, to whom the Romans were the last people who proudly weren't Christians, would prefer the hostile modern neologism "Byzantine" for the continuing Empire, rather than pollute the memory of Augustus and Trajan with that of Justinian, Heraclius, or Basil II. Yet even Justinian was still speaking Latin -- and what Classicist will dare, and I dare them, to fault the others for speaking Greek?- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Indeed, the Romans were rather more successful than is usually thought.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Carthage responded to Roman successes by landing an army of no less than 50,000 men in Sicily under the command of a general called Hannibal (it was a fairly common Punic name), establishing its headquarters at the fortress of Acragas (later called Agrigentum), the second city after Syracuse on the island of Sicily.
.^ As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name ( Dioclês , before being Latinized to Diocletianus ), Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So, while we think of "Augustus" as the name of the first Emperor, it was simply a title, whose import was well remembered by subsequent Emperors.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Only Odoacer in Italy vaguely acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty -- we don't know what allegiance to Constantinople, if any, remained in the Roman pocket in northern Gaul.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Its identity, however, was no longer Roman—it was increasingly populated and governed by Germanic peoples long before 476.
.^ The fighting was not merely restricted to Liguria itself.
^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
^ Meanwhile the Roman army on land gradually edged Carthaginian forces out of the centre of the isle of Sicily in hard, increasingly bitter fighting.
Many theories have been advanced in explanation of the
decline of the Roman Empire, and many dates given for its fall, from the onset of its decline in the third century
[85] to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
[86]
.^ The German troops wanted to be settled on the land in Italy, which Orestes resisted.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Romans having gained the tactical advantage the battle soon turned to butchery as the Carthaginian troops were encircled and slaughtered.
The historicity and exact dates are uncertain, and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point.
.^ Yet it soon crumbled, having been held together largely by Dionysius personal genius, rather than being a coherent empire.
Eastern Roman Empire (476–1453)
.^ Still the capital of Italy under the Ostrogoths, Ravenna becomes a Roman capital again, not of a Western Empire, but just for the Exarchate.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would be Roman allies until disappearing in the 11th century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Yet could Rome another test of strength against Pyrrhus now that he enjoyed the alliance of all of southern Italy?
^ Perhaps he was just a bitter old man, who saw the rich produce from the fertile fields of North Africa as a threat to the farmers of Italy.
.^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It was a classic example of the motto: divide and conquer. This left the Latins to face the Roman-Samnite war machine with only the Volscians as allies.
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Diocletian's Empire had Latin as its court language, but it was no longer based in Rome or governed or defended by natives of Latium.- Roman Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Posted by mharrsch at 9:25 AM Labels: bilingual , Cicero , education , Greek , language , Latin , Roman Empire , slavery , Tarentum .
^ Gygax also noted that "Pictor was influenced by Greek historiographic models and may have felt that Greek was the most adequate language for writing history in prose."
.^ Eagles were used by many to imply Roman antecedents, but the double headed eagle was adopted in particular by the Holy Roman Empire , by Imperial Russia , and by the Serbs .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Eagles were used by many to imply Roman antecedents, but the double headed eagle was adopted in particular by the Holy Roman Empire , by Imperial Russia , and by the Serbs .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Rome and Romania is continued in The Ottoman Sultans, 1290-1924 AD , Successors of Rome: Germania, 395-774 , Successors of Rome: Francia, 447-present , Successors of Rome: The Periphery of Francia , and Successors of Rome: Russia, 862-present .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The citys lands were impounded by the Roman state.
^ Most symbolically, the breach between the Eastern and Western Churches in 1054 was the one that became permanent and henceforth separated the One Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church into the Pope's Latin Church , usually called "Roman Catholic," and the Patriarch of Constantinople's Greek Church , traditionally called "Greek Orthodox" -- along with the other autocephalous "Orthodox" Churches (Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Romanian, etc.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The nimbus is not used for the Latin Emperors in the genealogy because, as Roman Catholics, they would have acknowledged Papal supremacy to a degree that the Orthodox Emperors in Constantinople never would.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ This small town, whose military garrison never exceeded 8,000, was to go down in history for resisting continuous Roman attacks for nine years.
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Decius and Herennius were killed in battle by the Goths in 251 -- the only Roman Emperors to die in battle (against external enemies) besides Julian (against the Persians, 363), Valens (against the Goths again, 378), Nicephorus I (against the Bulgars, 811), and Constantine XI (with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Indeed, the Romans were rather more successful than is usually thought.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The raid by the Roman legions was horrific and no less than 150,000 Epirots were carried away into slavery and sold.
^ If it is impossible that the percentage of Jews in Rome could be lower than in the Empire as a whole, that gives us a good ground for evaluating the percentage given by Paul Johnson.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In the early days of the dynasty we get a benchmark on the survival of Classical and later Greek literature.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ I use Roman names for the planets in the sky, which also get applied to the days of the week .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Military history
Principate (27 BC–AD 235)
.^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He didn't even recognize the Emperor who "fell," Romulus Augustulus, as a successor of Augustus (neither did the East, for that matter).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When Valentinian died, Gratian had already been raised to the status of Augustus and clearly was the legitimate Emperor of the West.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ To the west Gnaeus and Publius Scipio were keeping the Carthaginian armies tied up in knots, making it impossible for them to follow across the Alps and reinforce the invasion.
^ In 284 BC an army of Etruscans and Gauls from the Senones tribe laid siege to Arretium.
^ Meanwhile the Roman army on land gradually edged Carthaginian forces out of the centre of the isle of Sicily in hard, increasingly bitter fighting.
Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man in
Varus' famous defeat in the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9,
[88][89][90]
Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world.
.^ On the other hand, the man leading the Latin league against the Romans was Octavius Mamilius, the son-in-law of King Tarquin.
^ There were, moreover, Latin cities which even allied with the Gauls against her, thereby forcing the rest of the Latins, however reluctantly, to throw themselves under the protection of Rome.
^ A. THE ADVENT OF THE TURKS, 1059-1185, 126 years 1060 AD -- Romanian territory is intact, but the military and financial foundations of Roman power have been undermined.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[93].^ We might think that the Empire, Imperium , begins with Augustus becoming Emperor , Imperator , but that is not the case.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[95] Further east,
Trajan turned his attention to
Dacia.
[96][97][98] .^ He eventually marched his newly trained rag tag army of raw levies and mercenaries out into the open plain of Bagradas (Medjerda) where he offered battle.
^ The Battle of Cynoscephalae King Philip sought to achieve a decision and marched his army, 25,000 strong, into Thessaly.
[100] .^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It is important to keep in mind Romes preeminence in the region, established after the Second Macedonian War and the War against Antiochus, when viewing the later eastern wars and subsequent conquest of the east.
^ Venice was obviously not claiming 3/8 of the Empire of Trajan, but of the much reduced mediaeval Romania (this looks like part of the conspiracy of ignore the word "Romania" in Roman and "Byzantine" studies).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
In AD 69,
Marcus Salvius Otho had the Emperor
Galba murdered
[101][102] and claimed the throne for himself,
[103][104] but
Vitellius had also claimed the throne.
[105][106] .^ The following day their armies met in battle.
^ If they would see Rome through the next five years unharmed, then Rome would offer the first born of all her flocks and herds on a date set by the senate.
^ They met him at the Battle of Cirta ( Constantine, Algeria ), where he force was driven off the field.
[109] .^ One Legion from the campaign, Legio X Fretensis , remains in Judaea, while the other two that were given to Vespasian at the beginning of the campaign, Legio V Macedonica and Legio XV Apollinaris , have returned to the stations on the Danube.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[107] .^ The following day their armies met in battle.
^ He eventually marched his newly trained rag tag army of raw levies and mercenaries out into the open plain of Bagradas (Medjerda) where he offered battle.
^ The city itself has seen its army defeated and driven behind its walls, with the Samnites not camped out on Mount Tifata just outside the city.
[111] .^ Unfortunately, the Mobile Army as often was used for civil wars as for backing up the frontiers, and it was natural for Emperors to neglect the Limitanei and reinforce their own personal forces.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Rising in Spain However the very year in which the Roman provinces were established, 197 BC, and denuded of troops war broke out as the tribe of the Turdenati rose in revolt.
^ One major effect the wars had had on Roman society was to reduce the number of patricians significantly.
[112] .^ The last Western Emperor really worthy of the name was probably Majorian, who was a military man in his own right and operated with success in Gaul and Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In 298 BC the Lucanians in the south of Italy approached Rome for help against the Samnites who were invading their territory.
^ But Hannibal was now descending into northern Italy, a territory only recently won by Rome in crushing and oppressive military campaigns against local Gallic tribes.
.^ When Jerusalem fell to Titus in 70 AD, the Temple and most of the city were demolished.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Jewish Revolt & War, 66-73: Destruction of Jerusalem, 70 AD; Fall of Masada, 73; Revolt of Bar Kokhba, 132-135 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Jewish Revolt & War, 66-73; revolt of Civilis, four legions disbanded, 69-70; Destruction of Jerusalem, 70; Fall of Masada, 73 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Rising in Spain However the very year in which the Roman provinces were established, 197 BC, and denuded of troops war broke out as the tribe of the Turdenati rose in revolt.
^ Bar Kochba's Revolt in Judaea, 132-135 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ BC) The Second Punic War The Romans began the war with a giant miscalculation.
Both were brutally crushed.
.^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ To most people thinking of the "Roman Empire," we are well into terra incognita here.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ What upset things was not any internal development, but a most unexpected revival and return of Roman power.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
^ The Roman army was defeated, its consul captured and put to death.
^ Following his Sicilian adventure he no longer commanded the manpower that could match two Roman consular armies in the field.
General
Gaius Avidius Cassius was sent in 162 to counter the resurgent Parthia.
.^ By 294 BC the Etruscan cities who had joined in revolt also had made their peace with Rome.
^ Was the first act of the war the siege of Messana, by the joint forces of Carthage and Syracuse, the arrival of the Roman consular army under Appius Claudius made an end of it.
^ Possibly, the Romans ceded them control of cities they had conquered from them, yet this is little more than guesswork.
[115]
.^ Right from the start Rome distrusted Perseus as he had plotted against his younger brother Demetrius, assuring his execution for treason, during his fathers reign.
^ He had served as a tribune under Marcellus during the war against Carthage.
^ Hannibal was not going to fight a war against Rome in a manner of Romes choosing.
Emperor
Caracalla marched on Parthia in 217 from Edessa to begin a war against them, but he was assassinated while on the march.
[116] .^ By 294 BC the Etruscan cities who had joined in revolt also had made their peace with Rome.
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It is important to keep in mind Romes preeminence in the region, established after the Second Macedonian War and the War against Antiochus, when viewing the later eastern wars and subsequent conquest of the east.
Barracks and Illyrian emperors (235-284) and Dominate (284–395)
|
|
|
|
Tarragona - Scheldt - Salii - Chamavi
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lower Danube - Middle Danube
|
|
Although the exact historicity is unclear, some mix of Germanic peoples, Celts, and tribes of mixed Celto-Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands of Germania from the first century onwards.
.^ The problems of campaigns in Spain remained the same as they had been ever since Rome had unwittingly inherited the Carthaginian territories there at the end of the Second Punic War.
^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ If the decadence of pagan religion and despotic emperors was going to be the cause of the "fall" of Rome, then it certainly should have fallen in the Crisis of the Third Century .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[117][118].^ They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Otherwise, the end of the dynasty demonstrates one drawback of the new themes: they represented such military force that the strategus , their commander, was continually tempted to revolt.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As it happened, the Norsemen were rather less successful against the Romans than they were against the Franks, and bouts of attacks were usually followed by treaties -- where such reconciliation was rarely necessary in the West.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ After this Gallic invasion the Romans decided it wise to set up an emergency fund (the aerarium sanctius ) that was to be used in the event of another invasion.
^ Rising in Spain However the very year in which the Roman provinces were established, 197 BC, and denuded of troops war broke out as the tribe of the Turdenati rose in revolt.
^ The lesser army moved into Campania, the major force, commanded by one Gellius Egnatius, moved north through Sabine territory and Umbria until it reached the boarder with the Gallic tribe of the Senones.
.^ This not entirely coherent approach also results in the doublethink of moral satisfaction with the "fall" of the (Western) Empire in 476 while carefully ignoring the survival and resurgence of the Empire in the East.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Through Campania, they pushed into Latium and reached as far as Anagnia, or possibly even Praeneste.
[119]
.^ In Gaul Hasdrubal began recruiting, building up an army in preparation for a second invasion of Italy.
^ Only Odoacer in Italy vaguely acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty -- we don't know what allegiance to Constantinople, if any, remained in the Roman pocket in northern Gaul.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ War with the Etruscans and Gauls The unrest stirred up by Egnatius and his northern campaign in the Third Samnite War reverberated from some time in the north of Italy.
.^ Crete, 365; defeated and killed by the Visigoths , Battle of Adrianople, 378 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[120] .^ Some tribes may have broken away, but the Sabellian tribes of central Italy remained resolutely loyal.
^ One was that the Goths remained a unified and aggressive tribe within the Empire, ready to begin rampaging again at any time.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So thorough were his preparations, he remained an entire year in Gaul, before, like his brother before him, he crossed the Alps and descended into northern Italy.
Area settled by the Alamanni, and sites of Roman-Alamannic battles, 3rd to 6th century
The Alamanni on the other hand resumed their drive towards Italy almost immediately.
.^ When the historian Polybius visited the area some fifty years later, he reported it to be thoroughly italianised.
^ So heavily had the Gauls been defeated, the peace should hold for another fifty years.
^ They were unceremoniously defeated and driven back north.
.^ Crete, 365; defeated and killed by the Visigoths , Battle of Adrianople, 378 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[121][122].^ But the Germans remain across the Rhine and Danube, growing in numbers and sophistication.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Franks here duplicate the later course of the Vandals , through Gaul, Spain, and North Africa, but without the same effects.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ When the Suevi, Alans, and Vandals crossed the frozen Rhine on New Year's Eve of 407, nothing stood in their way when they looted their way across Gaul and Spain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[124] .^ Gradually, the Limitanei fade from historical view and hardly seem to exist at all by the time German tribes cross the borders en masse in the Fifth Century.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ B. CRISIS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 379-476, 97 Years The map shows the key incursions that would fatally undermine the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ By the end of the fifth century BC Rome had in fact become all but the mistress of Latium.
.^ Otherwise, the end of the dynasty demonstrates one drawback of the new themes: they represented such military force that the strategus , their commander, was continually tempted to revolt.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Following his Sicilian adventure he no longer commanded the manpower that could match two Roman consular armies in the field.
^ Rome could afford to be generous, having established her military supremacy over all parties involved.
The so-called
Crisis of the Third Century describes the turmoil of murder, usurpation and in-fighting that is traditionally seen as developing with the murder of the Emperor
Alexander Severus in 235.
[125]
.^ The "family," however, turned out to be the entirely matrilineal creation of Severus' sister-in-law, Julia Maesa, who brought her two grandsons, entirely unrelated to Severus, to the throne.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Septimius Severus himself was one of the two Roman Emperors ( Constantius Chlorus was the other) to die (a natural death) at York (Eboracum) in Britain.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ He didn't even recognize the Emperor who "fell," Romulus Augustulus, as a successor of Augustus (neither did the East, for that matter).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Nevertheless, Gallienus rebuilt the army and, excluding Senators from legionary commands, put in place the generals who, although his own murderers, conducted the reconstruction of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Caracalla, although not sticking with his brother, maintained his popularity reasonably well, until he terrified enough soldiers to precipitate his inevitable murder.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ There followed two days of skirmishing before the armies met in battle.
^ They met him at the Battle of Cirta ( Constantine, Algeria ), where he force was driven off the field.
^ Battle of the Zama The two armies commanded by the two greatest commanders of the age met at Zama.
[127]
.^ The "family," however, turned out to be the entirely matrilineal creation of Severus' sister-in-law, Julia Maesa, who brought her two grandsons, entirely unrelated to Severus, to the throne.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Nicephorus ended up killed in battle against the Bulgars , and his son Stauracius, proclaimed Emperor, turned out to be paralyzed from a spinal wound.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Valerian's relatively long reign ended with the unparalleled ignominy of being captured by Shapur I -- the only Roman Emperor captured by an enemy until Romanus IV in 1071.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
[127] His murderers raised in his place
Maximinus Thrax.
.^ He has such a small force, however ( Legio II Isaura & Legio III Isaura -- Legio I Isaura Sagittaria was with the Mobile Army of the East), the rebellions cannot have been too serious.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ But still Flamininus did not attack, knowing that it would mean trying to force his way passed a firmly entrenched Macedonian army, a fete impossible with the forces he had available.
^ Barriers may soon seal off the lagoon from the Adriatic, but this raises the problem of discharging the waste water brought down from inland cities.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ A characteristic moment came when the commander Aëtius , sometimes called "the Last Roman," who had defeated the Huns at Châlons-sur-Marne (Campus Mauriacus or the Catalaunian Plains, with substantial help from the Visigoths , whose King Theodoric I was killed), was murdered by the incompetent and jealous Emperor Valentinian III. Valentinian's own murder, as the Vandals symbolically arrived to plunder Rome, then left the throne completely at the mercy of the next person to get control of the Army, who was the German Ricimer.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Although St. Patrick's solicitude for the Irish anywhere is understandable, Christians in general did not worry about enslaving pagans -- which is why the word "slave" is derived from "Slav," who were enslaved long before they converted to Christianity.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
[129] Gallienus, emperor from AD 260 to 268, saw a
remarkable array of usurpers.
.^ Later in 407, the usurper Constantine took his troops out of Britain, simultaneously to secure Gaul and to establish himself as Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Theodore was himself defeated and captured by the Bulgarians, which would add him to the number of Valerian and Romanus IV if we considered him a proper Emperor of Romania.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Ricimer could not himself, as a German, become Emperor, so he could only retain power by keeping the Emperors as figureheads, or killing them.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ It would be more than fifteen years, until in 150 BC the remaining 300 of these captives were freed and returned to Greece.
^ Another was that Honorius and Arcadius, the two sons between whom Theodosius divided the Empire, were young and inexperienced.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Shed lost the First Punic War and had spent the past three years fighting off rebellion.
.^ The praetors famous words to the gathered multitude, We have been defeated in a great battle scarcely convey the feeling of deep despair that overcame the capital.
^ The very next year Fulvius Flaccus defeated another great force at the Battle of the Manlian Pass.
^ Rome had sent forth consul P. Licinius Crassus to deal with an enemy who had already been defeated once and was no doubt not deemed as great a challenge as it had once been.
.^ They met him at the Battle of Cirta ( Constantine, Algeria ), where he force was driven off the field.
^ The story that he saw a vision of the Cross in the sky with the inscription Hôc Vince ("By this [sign, signô ] Conquer") before (or during) the battle of the Milvian Bridge, when he defeated Maxentius in 312, comes very much later in hagiography.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ After the peace with Rome in 205 BC, Macedon continued an aggressive policy against the Greeks.
^ Keeping up appearances, Rome remained officially at war with Syracuse.
^ The problems of campaigns in Spain remained the same as they had been ever since Rome had unwittingly inherited the Carthaginian territories there at the end of the Second Punic War.
.^ At the Battle of Callinicus, which took place some 3 miles from Larissa ( Larisa ), the entire Roman consular force was put to rout by the army of Perseus.
^ Antiochus III of Syria, who had lost control of the sea in the naval war, meanwhile withdrew his troops from the coasts in Asia Minor, awaiting the Roman attack.
^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
[134]
.^ Romans defeated by the Gauls under Brennus at the Battle of Allia.
^ At the Battle of Callinicus, which took place some 3 miles from Larissa ( Larisa ), the entire Roman consular force was put to rout by the army of Perseus.
^ BC) What saved the Roman force from total destruction was that in the headlong pursuit of the fleeing enemy, the Macedonian forces fell into disorder and hence chose to pull back.
[130][135] .^ The Roman army was defeated, its consul captured and put to death.
^ At the Battle of Callinicus, which took place some 3 miles from Larissa ( Larisa ), the entire Roman consular force was put to rout by the army of Perseus.
^ The talented Coriolanus soon defeated the Roman army, driving them before him, until he and his Volscian army besieged Rome itself.
[130][133]
.^ Rome at first resisted any appeals for help by the mercenary renegades, staying true to her obligations under the peace treaty.
^ The treaty provided not only for peace between the two sides, but renewed their old alliance.
^ There was no formal treaty or understanding between Rome and King Attalus.
.^ Because of its success, however, one can hope that other events in Roman history, however fictionalized, will have a chance to make it onto the screen.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Whether anything quite like this happened or not, however, Bulgaria only lasted four more years before being annexed.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Before things had gone that far, however, we see that the attempt of Michael V, at the death of his uncle (?- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Decius and Herennius were killed in battle by the Goths in 251 -- the only Roman Emperors to die in battle (against external enemies) besides Julian (against the Persians, 363), Valens (against the Goths again, 378), Nicephorus I (against the Bulgars, 811), and Constantine XI (with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Even though their victory had failed to result in the destruction of the enemys army, Rome had triumphed, taking and sacking the city of Acragas, renaming it Agrigentum.
^ His ramshackle army didnt possess the necessary expertise for effective siege craft and clearly lacked the organization as well as the overwhelming force to take a city by storm.
^ But once extracated by the intervention of a third Roman force commanded by Publius Decius Mus, Cornelius went on to add yet another decisive victory to the Roman campaign.
There were several later wars.
Collapse of the Western Empire (395–476)
Europe in 476, from
Muir's Historical Atlas (1911).
|
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
|
|
|
|
|
.^ These are the commanders-in-chief of the Western Army (distiguished by purple color), with the Master of Soldiers becoming the effective "Generalissimo" of the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ After the death of Theodosius I, the Visigoths begin to move around in the Balkans.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
However, the
limes on the
Rhine had been depleted of Roman troops, and in early 407
Vandals,
Alans, and
Suevi invaded Gaul
en masse and, meeting little resistance, proceeded to cross the Pyrenees, entering Spain in 409.
.^ Right from the start Rome distrusted Perseus as he had plotted against his younger brother Demetrius, assuring his execution for treason, during his fathers reign.
^ So badly mauled had the city been by the barbarian sacking, it was even considered to abandon Rome and to move the population to the beautiful city of Veii instead.
^ Gladiatorial combat ended in Colosseum, 404; Rome sacked by Visigoths , 410; Gaul recovered from Constantine "III," 411; Visigoths destroy Alans and Siling Vandals in Spain, 416 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Suevi , Vandals , & Alans cross Rhine, 1 January 407 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Franks here duplicate the later course of the Vandals , through Gaul, Spain, and North Africa, but without the same effects.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Since the strength of the forces in Gaul was some 32,500 men, this reinforces that interpretation -- although we then wonder why such a force seems to have been so ineffective when the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi invaded in 407.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
Meanwhile, in the turmoil of the preceding years,
Roman Britain had been abandoned.
.^ One of the most interesting people in the diagram is the Empress Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius I, the wife of Constantius III, and the mother of Valentinian III. With Honorius and Constantius she was buried in the chapel of Saints Nazarius and Celsus in Ravenna.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ A last chance to recoup things for the whole Empire came in 468, after Leo had gotten Ricimer to accept the Theodosian relative Anthemius as Western Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Thus, the unity of the Eastern Army was focused more directly on the Emperor himself, which may have helped the Eastern Empire avoid the situation in the West where the Emperors became mere figureheads.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
After a violent struggle with several rivals,
Aetius rose to the rank of
magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his
Hunnic allies.
.^ Romans defeated by the Gauls under Brennus at the Battle of Allia.
^ The treaty seems to have made a significant distinction between areas under direct Roman protection and cities who were mere allies of Rome.
^ It may in fact have been the case that some previous campaigns against the Gauls had seen Samnite allies fighting alongside Roman legionaries.
.^ Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The hard won independence of Judaea fell within a century to Rome, which for a time, as elsewhere, tolerated a fiction of local rule -- the Herodian dynasty owed its power entirely to Roman favor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In his attempt to extend Roman power to the Elbe, Augustus lost three Legions at the battle of the Teutoburger Wald in 9 AD. The numbers of the lost Legions were never used again (likewise with the Legions later disbanded for rebellion).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Rome meanwhile was busy in Spain and Carthage.
^ Much worse, the crafty Vandal King Gaiseric ("King Caesar") built a fleet after securing Carthage in 439.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Meanwhile victory over Carthage had left no opposition to Roman occupation of the western Mediterranean other than the various tribes who lived there.
.^ Only the Aetolian League was the only significant ally gained in 200 BC, who put effective troops into the field.
^ At the Battle of Callinicus, which took place some 3 miles from Larissa ( Larisa ), the entire Roman consular force was put to rout by the army of Perseus.
^ King Syphax was pursued by a swift moving Roman force, commanded by Scipios trusted friend Laelius and Scipios Numidian ally Masinissa (an enemy of Syphax).
The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but he halted his campaign and died a year later in 453.
.^ Nevertheless, Gallienus rebuilt the army and, excluding Senators from legionary commands, put in place the generals who, although his own murderers, conducted the reconstruction of the Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Two years later saw a general rising of the Celtiberian tribes of central Spain.
.^ Otherwise, the end of the dynasty demonstrates one drawback of the new themes: they represented such military force that the strategus , their commander, was continually tempted to revolt.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Theodosian dynasty thus ends in the West with a combination of triumph, betrayal, and chaos.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ In Gaul Hasdrubal began recruiting, building up an army in preparation for a second invasion of Italy.
^ The worst part of the story may be that it has it that Odoacer was a (filthy, wild) Goth attacking Rome (a former ally rather like Alaric).- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ These are the commanders-in-chief of the Western Army (distiguished by purple color), with the Master of Soldiers becoming the effective "Generalissimo" of the Western Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ It is also from this point that the status of the Emperor is elevated far beyond that of a mere official to a being with semi-divine status, altering the form of government from the "Principate" to " Dominate ," from Dominus , "Lord."- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ In 198 BC, with the war a dismal failure so far, consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus, only 30 years of age, was dispatched to assume command.
.^ The first commander of Nepos, Ecdicius, was a son of the former Emperor Avitus.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Nicephorus ended up killed in battle against the Bulgars , and his son Stauracius, proclaimed Emperor, turned out to be paralyzed from a spinal wound.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ So in 476, Orestes and his son were then deposed by the German Odoacer (who originally had been in the guard of Anthemius), who decided to do without a figurehead Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ So in 476, Orestes and his son were then deposed by the German Odoacer (who originally had been in the guard of Anthemius), who decided to do without a figurehead Emperor.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ He found himself held in check by two armies, a Punic force commanded by Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and a Numidian force, commanded by their King Syphax.
^ Orestes & Augustulus, 476; Nepos killed, 480; defeated, besieged, & killed by Theodoric , 489-493 .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The competition for the throne in 193 was not very edifying, and absolutely none of the players appear in Gladiator , not even Pertinax, the prefect of the city of Rome.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The city of Rome itself still remained safe.
^ The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
The Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire endured until 1453 with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led by Mehmed II.
Legacy
The American magazine National Geographic described the legacy of the Roman Empire in The World According to Rome:
.
Sadao Nishijima. (1986). .^ Bury speculates that Aegidius held both titles [J.B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire , Volume I, Dover Publications, 1958, p.333].- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Perhaps "Later Romania" ( Romania Posterior, Recentior ) would be better, like the Later Han Dynasty -- making the Empire into the "Former Romania" ( Romania Prior ), like the Former Han Dynasty .- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Or, Donald M. Nicol [ Byzantium and Venice, a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations , Cambridge University Press, 1999, p.- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Varangians of Byzantium by Sigfús Blöndal and Benedikt S. Benedikz, Cambridge University Press, 1978, 1981, 2007].- Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. 18 January 2010 11:28 UTC www.friesian.com [Source type: Original source]
ISBN 0521243270.
Antonio Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8133-3523-X
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