From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.^ The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology .- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
^ The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals .- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
Salt
flavor is one of the
basic tastes, making salt one of the oldest, most ubiquitous food seasoning.
Salting is an important method of
food preservation.
Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as
sea salt), refined salt (table salt), and
iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from
sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content.
.^ The exchange of sodium and chloride ions across the fibre membrane of the isolated frog sartorius.- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
Salt is involved in regulating the
water content (
fluid balance) of the body. Overconsumption of salt increases the risk of health problems, including
high blood pressure.
History
Solution of salt in water
Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal
.^ Calcium chloride can also be used as a preservative to maintain firmness in canned vegetables or in higher concentrations in pickles to give a salty taste while not increasing the food's Sod.- Ammonium Chloride Zinc Chloride Calcium Chloride Potassium Chloride Sodium Acetate 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC sodium-bromide.com [Source type: Reference]
However, in the millennia before then, salt provided the best-known food preservative, especially for meat.
[1] A very ancient saltworks operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in
Lunca, Neamt County,
Romania. Evidence indicates that
Neolithic people of the
Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of
briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC.
[2] The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began.
[3] The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near
Yuncheng in
Shanxi,
China dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.
[4]:18–19
Along the
Sahara, the
Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport of salt by
Azalai (salt caravans). In 1960, the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this trade has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.
[5]
It is widely, though incorrectly,
[9] believed that troops in the
Roman army were paid in salt.
[10] Even widely-respected historical works repeat this error.
[4]:63 The word
salad literally means "salted," and comes from the
ancient Roman practice of salting
leaf vegetables.
[4]:64
In religion
In the
Hebrew Bible, thirty-five verses
mention salt,
[11] the earliest being the story of
Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt when she disobediently looked back at the wicked cities of
Sodom and Gomorrah (
Genesis 19:26) as the Lord destroyed them. When King
Abimelech destroyed the city of
Shechem, he is said to have "
sown salt on it", probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it. (Judges 9:45)
Salt is mandatory in the rite of the
Tridentine Mass.
[12] Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (
cf. Gallican rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of
Holy water.
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in
Hindu mythology, and is used in particular religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings.
In
Judaism, it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing
Kidush for
Shabat. It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kidush.
[13] To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.
[14]
In
Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also used as a purifier of sacred space.
In
Aztec mythology,
Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.
The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water. This is thought to be the origin of the Holy Water used in the Christian faith.
[14]
In weather
.^ Salt Intake Sea Salt for Your Health Find out how substituting sea salt for normal table salt can improve the quality and nutritional value of your meals.
^ Heat from the sun is used in air-drying a variety of materials and in producing salt by the evaporation of sea water ( Desalination ).
^ The difference between table and Kosher salt is that during the evaporation process it is raked to give it a block-like structure which allows the salt to draw the blood out of meats.- Salt, Salt - The Spice of Life, Types of Salt, Cooking with Salt, Salt Substitutions, Salt Composition and Medical Uses, History of Salt 16 January 2010 19:45 UTC whatscookingamerica.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
[15]
Salt is used for
snow removal, to make travel easier and safer and decrease the long term impact of a heavy
snowfall on human populations.
.^ H, being reduced at lower pH and increased at higher pH. Thus, pumping was subject to both chemical and electrical components of the proton gradient.- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
[16]
Forms of salt
Unrefined salt
A commercial pack of sea salt
Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each one a unique flavor.
Fleur de sel, natural sea salt harvested by hand, has a unique flavor varying from region to region.
.^ This supermarket or health food store "sea salt" has been totally refined.
^ Unrefined sea salt is a better choice of salt than other types of salt on the market.
^ Bottom line, is that yes it can be harmful to consume too much refined salt, but you cannot consume too much natural unrefined salt ."
[17] However, completely raw sea salt is bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds, and thus is rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough
iodine salts to prevent
iodine deficiency diseases.
[18]
Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in bathing additives and
cosmetic products. One example are
bath salts, which uses
sea salt as its main ingredient and combined with other ingredients used for its healing and therapeutic effects.
Refined salt
Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium chloride. Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in
industrialised countries (3% in Europe
[19]) although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.
[20] The majority is sold for industrial use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary ingredient in the manufacturing of many things. A few common examples include: the production of pulp and paper, setting dyes in textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents.
The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.
[21] Salt can be obtained by evaporation of
sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by
sunlight;
[22] salt so obtained was formerly called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt. Rock salt deposits are formed by the evaporation of ancient salt lakes,
[23] and may be
mined conventionally or through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt, and the
brine solution can be pumped to the surface where the salt is collected.
After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. Purification usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts).
[24] Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are
kiln-dried.
Single-serving salt packets.
Since the 1950s it has been common to add a trace of
sodium ferrocyanide to the brine in the
United Kingdom; this acts as an
anticaking agent by promoting irregular crystals.
[25] .^ Some energetic considerations The experiments of Krogh and Garcia Romeu were run using animals that had been exposed for some time to distilled water and hence were salt depleted (SD).- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
Both the European Union and the United States
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permited the use of
aluminum in the latter two compounds.
[27] The refined salt is then ready for packing and distribution.
Table salt
Table salt is refined salt, which contains about 97% to 99%
sodium chloride.
[28][29][30][31] It usually contains substances that make it free-flowing (anti-caking agents) such as
sodium silicoaluminate or magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a
desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked
rice,
[32] in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up clumps when anti-caking agents are not enough. Table salt has a
particle density of 2.165 g/cm
3, and a
bulk density (dry,
ASTM D 632 gradation) of about 1.154 g/cm
3.
[33]
Salty condiments
In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.
[34] However, condiments such as
soy sauce,
fish sauce and
oyster sauce tend to have a high salt content and fill much the same role as a salt-providing table condiment that table salt serves in western cultures.
Additives
Table salt is mainly employed in cooking and as a table condiment. The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the
United States, iodized salt contains 46-77 ppm, while in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10-22 ppm.
[36] Today, iodized salt is more common in the
United States,
Australia and
New Zealand than in the
United Kingdom.
In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor salt) contains
invert sugar. The reason for this is unclear.
Sodium ferrocyanide, also known as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anti-caking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.
[37][38]
Health effects
SEM image of a grain of table salt.
Sodium is one of the primary
electrolytes in the body.
.^ The absorption of sodium ions by the crayfish Astacus pallipes Lereboullet III. The effect of other cations in the external solution.- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
Too much or too little salt in the diet can lead to
muscle cramps,
dizziness, or
electrolyte disturbance, which can cause neurological problems, or be fatal.
[39] Drinking too much water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a person at risk of
water intoxication (
hyponatremia). Salt is sometimes used as a health aid, such as in treatment of
dysautonomia.
[40]
Evidence supports the link between excess salt consumption and a number of conditions including
[43]:
- Heartburn.[44]
- Osteoporosis: One report shows that a high salt diet does reduce bone density in women.[45] Yet "While high salt intakes have been associated with detrimental effects on bone health, there are insufficient data to draw firm conclusions."[46]
- Gastric cancer (stomach cancer) is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the evidence does not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK."[47] However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.[48]
.^ Mutations in this gene cause Gitelman syndrome, a disease similar to Bartter's syndrome, that is characterized by hypokalemic alkalosis combined with hypomagnesemia, low urinary calcium, and increased renin activity associated with normal blood pressure.- SLC12A3 Gene - GeneCards | S12A3 Protein | S12A3 Antibody 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC www.genecards.org [Source type: Academic]
^ GS is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by hypokalemic alkalosis in combination with hypomagnesemia, low urinary calcium, and increased renin activity associated with normal blood pressure.- SLC12A3 Gene - GeneCards | S12A3 Protein | S12A3 Antibody 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC www.genecards.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This cotransporter is the target for thiazide diuretics that are used for treating high blood pressure.- SLC12A3 Gene - GeneCards | S12A3 Protein | S12A3 Antibody 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC www.genecards.org [Source type: Academic]
The data have been consistent in various study populations and across the age range in adults."[46] .^ Mutations in this gene cause Gitelman syndrome, a disease similar to Bartter's syndrome, that is characterized by hypokalemic alkalosis combined with hypomagnesemia, low urinary calcium, and increased renin activity associated with normal blood pressure.- SLC12A3 Gene - GeneCards | S12A3 Protein | S12A3 Antibody 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC www.genecards.org [Source type: Academic]
^ This cotransporter is the target for thiazide diuretics that are used for treating high blood pressure.- SLC12A3 Gene - GeneCards | S12A3 Protein | S12A3 Antibody 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC www.genecards.org [Source type: Academic]
Their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease decreased by 20%.[49]
- Left ventricular hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high salt intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease, independently of blood pressure effects."[46] "…there is accumulating evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular hypertrophy."[50] Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an inadequate intake of water, can cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.[39]
- Edema (BE: oedema): A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat edema (fluid retention).[39][51]
- Duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers[52]
- Death: Ingestion of large amounts of salt in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body weight)[53] can be fatal. Salt solutions have been used in ancient China as a method of suicide (especially by the nobility, since salt was quite valuable). Deaths have also resulted from attempted use of salt solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.[54]
The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake varies because of biochemical individuality. Some have asserted that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real, the risks have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on the consumption of salt can be interpreted in many different ways.
[55][56]
Some isolated cultures, such as the
Yanomami in South America, have been found to consume little salt, possibly an adaptation originated in the predominantly
vegetarian diet of human primate ancestors.
[57] .^ However, it was later argued (Henry, 2001 ) that Böttcher's lack of results in Carcinus were due to the low permeability of membranes to AZ and insufficient time allowed for it to act.- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
[58][59]
Recommended intake
A salt mill for sea salt.
In the
United Kingdom the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) recommended in 2003 that, for a typical adult, the
Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) is 4 g salt per day (1.6 g or 70 mmol sodium). However, average adult intake is two and a half times the Reference Nutrient Intake for sodium. SACN states, "The target salt intakes set for adults and children do not represent ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population goals."
[60] The Food Safety Authority of
Ireland endorses the UK targets.
[50]
The
NHMRC in
Australia was not able to define a recommended dietary intake (RDI). It defines an Adequate Intake (AI) for adults of 460-920 mg/day and an Upper Level of intake (UL) of 2300 mg/day.
[63]
In the
United States, the Food and Drug Administration itself does not make a recommendation,
[64] but refers readers to
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. These suggest that US citizens should consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium (= 2.3 g sodium = 5.8 g salt) per day.
[65]
Meta-analysis in 2009 found that the sodium consumption of 19,151 individuals from 33 countries fit into the narrow range of 2,700 to 4,900 mg/day.
.^ Effect of amiloride on sodium transport across body surfaces of freshwater animals.- The mechanism of sodium chloride uptake in hyperregulating aquatic animals -- Kirschner 207 (9): 1439 -- Journal of Experimental Biology 10 January 2010 2:33 UTC jeb.biologists.org [Source type: Academic]
[66]
Labeling
UK: The
Food Standards Agency defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more than 1.5g salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium). Low is 0.3g salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium). If the amount of salt per 100g is in between these figures, then that is a medium level of salt." In the UK, foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‘traffic light’ colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium), or Green (Low).
[67]
USA: The FDA
Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food can be labelled as "free", "low", or "reduced/less" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g. low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'
[68]
Campaigns
In 2004, Britain's
Food Standards Agency started a
public health campaign called "Salt - Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g of salt per day; it features a character called
Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt Manufacturers Association (SMA).
[69] The
Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.
[70] In March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is your food full of it?" fronted by comedienne
Jenny Eclair.
[71]
The Menzies Research Institute in Tasmania, Australia, maintains a website
[72] dedicated to educating people about the potential problems of a salt-laden diet.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH)
[73] established in 1996, actively campaigns to raise awareness of the harmful health effects of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising awareness of high levels of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.
[74]
Salt substitutes
.^ In other words, if you are used to eating high amounts of salt, you will be more likely to choose other foods for your diet which are high in salt.
^ There is not enough natural salt in our foods, so we must supplement our diet.
^ "In recent years there has been much publicity about the need to reduce salt consumption in societies where salt is added to many processed foods (Denton 1984, 584-7).
Salt substitutes have a taste similar to table salt and contain mostly
potassium chloride, which will increase
potassium intake. Excess potassium intake can cause
hyperkalemia. Various diseases and
medications may decrease the body's excretion of potassium, thereby increasing the risk of hyperkalemia. Those who have
kidney failure,
heart failure or diabetes should seek medical advice before using a salt substitute. One manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement
[75] that those taking the following prescription drugs should not use a salt substitute:
amiloride,
triamterene, Dytac,
spironolactone (Aldactone), and
eplerenone (
Inspra).
Production
Salt is produced by
evaporation of
seawater or
brine from other sources, such as
brine wells and
salt lakes, and by
mining rock salt, called
halite. In 2002, total world production was estimated at 210 million
tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).
[76] Note that these figures are not just for table salt but for sodium chloride in general.
Salt disturbance in coastal industries
The omnipresence of salt posts a problem in any coastal coating application. Salts that are trapped under a coating cause great problems in coating adhesion. Costs can reach staggering amounts. Naval authorities and ship builders keep a close eye on salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximum salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m2 soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a
Bresle test.
See also
A ship loading salt from a terminal.
Notes
- ^ a b Barber 1999:136
- ^ Antiquity.ac.uk Antiquity, Vol 79 No 306 December 2005 The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania Olivier Weller & Gheorghe Dumitroaia
- ^ (French) Arhives-ouvertes.fr ArchæDyn – Dijon, 23-25 june 2008 Dynamics settlement pattern, production and trades from Neolithic to Middle Ages
- ^ a b c d e Kurlansky 2002
- ^ Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Douchan Gersi's travels)
- ^ Included among the other, less well-known continental salt sites with hal(l)- in their names are Reichenhall and Schwäbisch Hall in Germany, and Hall in Austria. (Barber 1999:137)
- ^ Barber 1999:135–137
- ^ Kurlansky 2002:52–55
- ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition". Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/salary. Retrieved 2008-12-14.
- ^ For instance, in the animated short Scrooge McDuck and Money
- ^ Strong's Concordance
- ^
"Salt". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Salt.
- ^ Chabad.org
- ^ a b "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt", Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2006
- ^ B. J. Mason (2006-12-19). "The role of sea-salt particles as cloud condensation nuclei over the remote oceans". The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 127 (576): 2023–2032. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114028130/abstract. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
- ^ David A. Kuemmel (1994). Managing roadway snow and ice control operations. Transportation Research Board. p. 10. ISBN 9780309056663. http://books.google.com/books?id=I3gxuwTE5_MC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=effect+of+snowfall+on+infrastructure&source=bl&ots=kmDWQqfCno&sig=yMOXi2gv5_LJf_o3qNA36e0FSO8&hl=en&ei=nKxUSt-pAY7ElAeIoZXkCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
- ^ Sea Salt is good for you
- ^ References on food salt & health issues. Salt Institute.
- ^ European Salt Producers' Association http://www.eu-salt.com/index3.htm
- ^ Roskill Information Services http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt
- ^ Salt made the world go round
- ^ Nauticus - Weather Curriculum
- ^ UK Salt Manufacturers' Association http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsalt-what01.htm
- ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
- ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
- ^ Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt
- ^ HE-620
- ^ Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt, from Tesco Stores Ltd (UK) states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 98.9% sodium chloride
- ^ Calculating the listed 590mg of Sodium in a 1.5g serving size (of Smart & Final iodized salt), it is clear that it is not 99% sodium chloride since pure NaCl should contain about 870mg of Sodium
- ^ Table
- ^ The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for Food Grade Salt
- ^ "Rice in Salt Shakers". Ask a Scientist. http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
- ^ What is Salt?, Salt Institute, 2008
- ^ The Seattle Times: Pacific Northwest Magazine
- ^ Iodized Salt
- ^ Iodized Salt
- ^ Ferrocyanides in salt for feed use is acceptable as regards safety for target animals and human consumer...
- ^ Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt
- ^ a b c Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Salt
- ^ Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center Dysautonomia page
- ^ Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP (2009). "Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies". BMJ 339: b4567. PMID 19934192.
- ^ Low-sodium advice for asthmatics should be taken with a pinch of salt
- ^ BBC News
- ^ Everybody Study adds salt to suspected triggers for heartburn
- ^ High salt diet reduces bone density in girls
- ^ a b c Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 3
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 18
- ^ Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk'
- ^ Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334(7599):885. PMID 17449506 Free full-text
- ^ a b Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific Evidence and Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland, page 12
- ^ Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention
- ^ BBC High-salt diet link to ulcer risk 22 May 2007
- ^ Safety data for sodium chloride - The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory of Oxford University
- ^ Elisabeth Elena Türk, Friedrich Schulz, Erwin Koops, Axel Gehl and Michael Tsokos. Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an emetic—report of three autopsy cases. Legal Medicine 2005, 7, 47-50. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2004.06.005
- ^ Why Files article Salt and other wounds
- ^ Gary Taubes, "The (Political) Science of Salt", Science, 14 August 1998, Vol. 281. no. 5379, pp. 898 - 907
- ^ Yanomami Indians in the Intersald study, (accessed 13 January, 2007)
- ^ Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene (ACE) Insertion/Deletion Polymorphism in Mexican Populations
- ^ Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health
- ^ Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes
- ^ Auckland District Health Board Public Health Nutrition Advice (PDF)
- ^ NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium
- ^ U. S. Food and Drug Administration A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary Salt
- ^ Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 "Sodium and Potassium"
- ^ Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 1878–1882, 2009. doi: 10.2215/CJN.04660709 Can Dietary Sodium Intake Be Modified by Public Policy? [1]
- ^ Understanding labels
- ^ Food and Drug Administration A Food Labeling Guide--Appendix A
- ^ Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack
- ^ Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April 2005 (PDF)
- ^ Salt TV ads
- ^ Salt Matters
- ^ "CASH Consensus Action on Salt". http://www.hyp.ac.uk/cash/.
- ^ "Child health fears over high salt levels in sweet foods". 28 January 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/jan/28/foodanddrink.healthandwellbeing.
- ^ LoSalt Advisory Statement (PDF)
- ^ Susan R. Feldman. Sodium chloride. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online 2005. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2
References
- Kurlansky, Mark (2002), Salt: A World History, New York: Walker & Co., ISBN 0802713734, OCLC 48573453 .
- Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999), The Mummies of Ürümchi, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 0393320197, OCLC 48426519 .
Further reading
- Kurlansky, Mark, and S. D. Schindler. The Story of Salt. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2006. ISBN 0399239987—a children's book about salt.
- Laszlo, Pierre. Salt: Grain of Life. Arts and traditions of the table. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
- Department of Health, Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the UK: Report of the Panel on DRVs of the Committee on the Medical Aspects of Food Policy , The Stationery Office.
External links
Salt and health
- Government bodies
Many other government bodies are listed in the References section above.
- Medical authorities
- Charities and campaigns
- Journalism
- Salt industry