From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.^ UTILITARIANISM: the ethical theory for all times.- UTILITARIAN ETHICS: an introductory explanation 20 September 2009 5:59 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: Original source]
- UTILITARIAN LINKS 20 September 2009 5:59 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: Academic]
- UTILITARIANISM: the ethical theory for all times. 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
- BENTHAM: ON THE RATIONAL OF REWARD 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC jeromekahn123.tripod.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Utilitarianism is an impartial ethical theory.- Lecture 3: Introduction to Ethical Theory II 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.ucs.mun.ca [Source type: Original source]
^ This article discusses utilitarian ethical theory.- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
For a discussion of
John Stuart Mill's book
Utilitarianism, see
Utilitarianism (book). For the architectural theory, see
Utilitarianism (architecture)
.^ Behind such a veil of ignorance all individuals are specified as rational, free, and morally equal beings.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ From this, he derived the rule of utility: the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people, human beings ( Utilitarianism , Wikipedia) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The classical utilitarian idea to calculate individual utility out of a utility function is discarded in the context of NU. Like prioritarianism, NU concentrates on the calculation of social welfare out of individual utilities.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
It is thus a form of
consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an
action is determined by its outcome.
.^ La filosofia guispolitica di Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Stuart Mill .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ John Stuart Mill, Miscellaneous Writings , ed.- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ John Stuart Mill and the Catholic Question in 1825 .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
.^ From this, he derived the rule of utility: the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people, human beings ( Utilitarianism , Wikipedia) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The term preference-satisfaction relates to any kind of happiness, and the term preference-frustration to any kind of suffering.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Utility corresponds to the net value of preference-satisfactions and preference-frustrations and (in contrast to classical utilitarianism) the concept of preference is not restricted to goods and services.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Nevertheless (since a person may also die in an accident without being conscious of such a loss) the complete devaluation of happiness is a conceptual weakness.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The Importance of Being Important: Euthanasia and Critical Interests in Dworkins Lifes Dominion .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Utilitarianism can be characterised as a quantitative and
reductionist approach to ethics.
.^ Well-being has several dimensions, some of which can be influenced, whereas others cant.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Virtue Ethics vs. Rule-Consequentialism: A Reply to Brad Hooker .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Well-being and Morality: Essays in Honour of James Griffin .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
In general usage, the term
utilitarian refers to a somewhat narrow economic or pragmatic viewpoint. Philosophical utilitarianism, however, is a much broader view that encompasses all aspects of people's lives.
History
.^ Greek philosopher Epicurus has sometimes been caricatured as crude hedonist .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
[2] .^ Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world: "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure."- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The presence of pain is bad and the absence of pain is good, but whereas the presence of pleasure is good, the absence of pleasure is bad only if somebody is deprived of that pleasure ( Better if it had never been , David Benatar,) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Bentham, J. , Value of a Pain or Pleasure (1778), in: B. Parekh (ed.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
[3] .^ From this, he derived the rule of utility: the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people, human beings ( Utilitarianism , Wikipedia) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It would compensate the number of unhappy people with the happy ones and valuate the situation positive.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ NU would attempt to decrease the number of not at all happy people with first priority and valuate the situation negative as long as extremely suffering people exist.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ La filosofia guispolitica di Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Stuart Mill .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ John Stuart Mill, Miscellaneous Writings , ed.- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ John Stuart Mill and the Catholic Question in 1825 .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work while still in his teens.
[4]
.^ We see that the weight we have to give to Pam in order to pull down the moral value of society 1 (below society 2) is much higher than in above example.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ One extra unit of utility for a starving person is not seen to be of any greater value than an extra unit of utility for a millionaire.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The negative utilitarian position is functionally equivalent to a certain type of classical utilitarian position - a position where pleasure holds very little value ( Negativity , utilitarian.org).- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.
.^ Prioritarians would say that society 2 is better or more desirable than society 1 despite being lower than society 1 in terms of overall well-being.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The thesis in other words goes as follows: Human rights cause lower risks than a further restriction of those rights.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
He justified this distinction by the thought that "few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures."
[5] .^ Under a given GNP the maximum social welfare can be attained, if the goods are equally distributed among the two persons [Kleinewefers, 41].- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ It is assumed that the utility (usefulness) of the two goods is the same for both persons.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Lets assume the society consists of two persons P 1 and P 2 , who dispose of two goods G 1 and G 2 .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The failure of happiness-promoting philosophies like classical utilitarianism and Marxism .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Utilitarian Strategies in Bentham and John Stuart Mill .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
.^ John Stuart Mill, Miscellaneous Writings , ed.- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ From this, he derived the rule of utility: the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people, human beings ( Utilitarianism , Wikipedia) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ John M. Robson ( Collected Works of John Stuart Mill , volumes xxvi and xxvii) .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
For example a pleasure/desire may be to bully a lonely child, which may produce pleasure, however happiness comes from following virtues rather than desires.
.^ Well-being has several dimensions, some of which can be influenced, whereas others cant.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Utility corresponds to the net value of preference-satisfactions and preference-frustrations and (in contrast to classical utilitarianism) the concept of preference is not restricted to goods and services.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ As well as classical utilitarianism, prioritarianism is a consequentialist theory: .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ There are various interpretations of Rawls difference principle (besides Maximin ) so that a comparison is accordingly difficult.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ What difference does it make, if global ethical priorities are based on the classical utilitarian approach to save as many lives as possible or the negative utilitarian approach to remove as much suffering as possible ?- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Some theorists have developed a justification of prioritarianism , based on risk aversion in the original position [Atkinson / Stiglitz, 340; Hurley, 368-382].- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
- reject the sole importance of well-being, arguing that there are intrinsic values other than happiness or pleasure, such as knowledge and
autonomy.
.^ Torbjörn Tännsjö, Hedonistic Utilitarianism .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ The Coherence of Two-Level Utilitarianism: Hare vs. Williams .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
.^ These included his secretary and collaborator on the utilitarian school of philosophy, James Mill ; James Mill's son John Stuart Mill ; and several political leaders including Robert Owen , who later became a founder of socialism () .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ Henry Sidgwick, Essays on Ethics and Method , ed.- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Henry Sidgwicks Practical Ethics .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Henry Sidgwick's practical Ethics: A Defense .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
.^ Utilitarianism has been used as an argument for many different political views.- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Utilitarianism had as its principle early function (by Bentham and his circle) been used to bring moral considerations as a measurement of then current economic policies and political agendas.- UTILITARIANISM: the ethical theory for all times. 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ At least for myself if not many others, DP's account of other's views of utilitarianism is in no way accurate (nor I suspect made in good faith).
In his essay
On Liberty, as well as in other works, John Stuart Mill argues that utilitarianism requires that political arrangements satisfy the "liberty principle" (or
harm principle), according to which "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."
[7] Prevention of self-harm by other persons was considered expressly forbidden. Instead, Mill states that only
persuasion can be rightfully used to prevent self-harm.
[citation needed]
Types
Act v rule
Act utilitarianism states that, when faced with a choice, we must first consider the likely consequences of potential actions and, from that, choose to do what we believe will generate most pleasure.
.^ NU, on the other hand, considers skepticism as a principle which blocks action and perpetuates extreme suffering.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ The welfare function according to Pigou would look as follows: .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The welfare function according to Bentham would look as follows: .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
If adherence to the rule produces more happiness than otherwise, it is a rule that morally must be followed at all times.
.^ What difference does it make, if global ethical priorities are based on the classical utilitarian approach to save as many lives as possible or the negative utilitarian approach to remove as much suffering as possible ?- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ The relation between classical utilitarianism and NU can best be understood if the two ethics are seen as border cases within prioritarianism.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ However with rule utilitarianism, this criticism is sharpened.- Utilitarianism v. Objectivism: The Throwdown - Jolt Forums 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC forums.joltonline.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Rule utilitarianism has been criticized for advocating general rules that will in some specific circumstances clearly decrease happiness if followed.- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ For the sake of argument, lets say we can attribute numbers to utility and that we are following the rules of utilitarianism as set forth by Mill when constructing the following utility table.- PsychoNoble - Mill, Utilitarianism, and Rights 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.psychonoble.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ He argued that animal pain is very similar to human pain and that the day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been withholden from them but by the hand of tyranny.- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
^ From this, he derived the rule of utility: the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people, human beings ( Utilitarianism , Wikipedia) .- Negative Utilitarianism and Justice 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.socrethics.com [Source type: Original source]
Rule utilitarians add, however, that there are general exception rules that allow the breaking of other rules if such rule-breaking increases happiness, one example being self-defense. Critics argue that this reduces rule utilitarianism to act utilitarianism and makes rules meaningless. Rule utilitarians retort that rules in the legal system (i.e. laws) that regulate such situations are not meaningless. Self-defense is legally justified, while murder is not.
However there is within rule utilitarianism a distinction between the strictness and absolutism of this particular branch of utilitarianism. There is Strong Rule Utilitarianism which is an absolutist theory which frames strict rules which apply for all people and all time and may never be broken. Weak Rule utilitarianism however was the branch of utilitarianism that was proposed by John Stuart Mill and entailed that although rules should be framed on previous examples that benefit society; such as do not lie, it is possible under specific circumstances to do that which produces the greatest happiness and to break that rule. An example would be the Gestapo asking where your Jewish neighbours were... A strong rule utilitarian might say that the rule "Do not lie" can never be broken, whereas a weak rule utilitarian would argue that to lie would be the result that would produce the most happiness
Rule utilitarianism should not be confused with
heuristics (rules of thumb), but many act utilitarians agree that it makes sense to formulate certain rules of thumb to follow if they find themselves in a situation whose consequences are difficult, costly or time-consuming to calculate exactly. If the consequences can be calculated relatively clearly and without much doubt, however, the rules of thumb can be ignored.
Collapse of rule utilitarianism into act utilitarianism
It has been argued
[8] that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be sophisticated by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception. This process holds for all cases of exceptions, and so the 'rules' will have as many 'sub-rules' as there are exceptional cases, which, in the end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome produces the maximum utility.
[9]Two-level
.^ The Coherence of Two-Level Utilitarianism: Hare vs. Williams .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
However there are some times when we must ascend to a higher 'critical' level of reflection in order to decide what to do, and must think as an act utilitarian would.
Richard Hare supported this theory with his concept of the Archangel, which holds that if we were all 'archangels' we could be act utilitarians all the time as we would be able to perfectly predict consequences. However we are closer to 'proles' in that we are frequently biased and unable to foresee all possible consequence of our actions, and thus we require moral guidelines. When these principles clash we must attempt to think like an archangel in order to choose the right course of action.
Negative
.^ The Greatest Happiness Principle and Other Early German Anticipations of Utilitarian Theory .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Negative utilitarianism (NU) requires us to promote the least amount of evil or harm, or to prevent the greatest amount of
suffering for the greatest number. Proponents like Karl Popper, Christoph Fehige and Clark Wolf argue that this is a more effective ethical formula, since, they contend, the greatest harms are more consequential than the greatest goods.
Karl Popper also referred to an epistemological argument:
“It adds to clarity in the fields of ethics, if we formulate our demands negatively, i.e. if we demand the elimination of suffering rather than the promotion of happiness.” [10]. In the practical implementation of this idea the following versions can be distinguished:
1. R.N.Smart, an advocate of the utilitarian principle, was quick to suggest that the ultimate aim of NU would be to engender the quickest and least painful method of killing the entirety of humanity, as this ultimately would effectively minimize suffering. NU would seem to call for the destruction of the world even if only to avoid the pain of a pinprick
[11].
2. Newer, moderate versions of NU do not attempt to minimize all kinds of suffering but only those kinds that are created by the frustration of preferences.
[12] In most supporters of moderate NU the preference to survive is stronger than the wish to be freed from suffering, so that they refuse the idea of a quick and painless destruction of life. Some of them believe that, in time, the worst cases of suffering will be defeated and a world of minor suffering can be realized. The principal agents of this direction can be found in the environment of
transhumanism and
abolitionism (bioethics) [13].
Supporters of moderate NU who do not believe in the promises of technology would prefer a reduction of the world population (and in the extreme case an empty world). This seems to come down to the position of radical NU, but in moderate NU the world could only be sacrificed to prevent extreme suffering and not to avoid the pain of a pinprick. And from the claim that an empty world would be a preferable state of affairs, it does not follow that a political movement should be formed with the aim of achieving such a state of affairs. The latter would definitely (and in analogy to radical NU) be counterproductive. Pessimistic supporters of moderate NU therefore tend towards a retreat oriented way of living.
3. Finally there are theoreticians who see NU as a branch within classical utilitarianism, rather than an independent theory. This interpretation overlooks
Derek Parfit's “
Repugnant Conclusion”
[14]. NU is precisely characterized by overcoming this theoretical weakness of classical utilitarianism.
Average v total
Total utilitarianism advocates measuring the utility of a population based on the total utility of its members.
.^ On the Cross of Mere Utility: Utilitarianism, Sacrifices, and the Value of Persons .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
In other words, according to the theory, it is a moral good to breed more people on the world for as long as total happiness rises.
[15]
Average utilitarianism, on the other hand, advocates measuring the utility of a population based on the average utility of that population. It avoids Parfit's repugnant conclusion, but causes other problems like the
Mere Addition Paradox. For example, bringing a moderately happy person in a very happy world would be seen as an immoral act; aside from this, the theory implies that it would be a moral good to eliminate all people whose happiness is below average, as this would raise the average happiness
[16].
Other species
.^ Which Beings Deserve Ethical Consideration?- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Peter Singer, One World: The Ethics of Globalization .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Otherwise, it would be a case of
speciesism. Bentham made a similar argument.
This view may be contrasted with
deep ecology, which holds that an intrinsic value is attached to all forms of life and nature. According to utilitarianism, most forms of life are unable to experience anything akin to pleasure or discomfort, and are therefore denied moral status.
[citation needed] Thus, the moral value of organisms that do not experience pleasure or discomfort, or natural entities like a river, is only in the benefit they provide to sentient beings. Similarly, utilitarianism places no intrinsic value on
biodiversity.
Combinations with other ethical schools
In order to overcome the perceived shortcomings of both systems, several attempts have been made to reconcile utilitarianism with
Kant's
categorical imperative. James Cornman proposes that, in any given situation, we should treat as "means" as few people as possible and as "ends" as many as are consistent with those "means". He refers to this as the "Utilitarian Kantian Principle".
Other consequentialists may consider happiness an important consequence but argue in addition that consequences such as
justice or
equality should also be valued, regardless of whether or not they increase happiness.
Biological explanation
.^ Biological explanation for utilitarianism It has been suggested that sociobiology , the study of the evolution of human society, provides support for the utilitarian point of view.- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
^ It has been suggested that that sociobiology , the study of the evolution of human society, provides support for the utilitarian point of view.- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ It has been suggested that sociobiology, the study of the evolution of human society, provides support for the utilitarian point of view.
.^ UTILITARIANISM: the ethical theory for all times.- UTILITARIAN LINKS 20 September 2009 5:59 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: Academic]
- BENTHAM: ON THE RATIONAL OF REWARD 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC jeromekahn123.tripod.com [Source type: Original source]
^ For example, in The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology , the utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that fundamentally utilitarian ethical reasoning has existed from the time primitive foraging bands had to cooperate, compromise, and make group decisions to survive.- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Another reason for an egoist to become a utilitarian was proposed by Peter Singer in Practical Ethics.- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
.^ He elaborates: "In a dispute between members of a cohesive group of reasoning beings, the demand for a reason is a demand for a justification that can be accepted by the group as a whole."- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
.^ I care about the interests of other humans.- Environmental Economics: The Problems and Limitations of Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.env-econ.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Thus, consideration of others' interests has long been a necessary part of the human experience.- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ On a related note, utilitarianism avoids the charge of speciesism in ethical theory by using a moral foundation that is shared by other species, thus requiring their consideration.- http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~cp28/ethterm.htm 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.pages.drexel.edu [Source type: Original source]
Singer believes that reason now compels the equal consideration of all people's interests:
| “ |
.^ The Importance of Being Important: Euthanasia and Critical Interests in Dworkins Lifes Dominion .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Are Some Inequalities More Unequal than Others?- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Why We Ought to Accept the Repugnant Conclusion .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
|
” |
This conclusion – that everybody's interests should be considered equally when making decisions – is a core tenet of utilitarianism.
.^ Singer elaborates that viewing oneself as equal to others in one's society and at the same time viewing one's society as fundamentally superior to other societies may cause an uncomfortable cognitive dissonance .- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Singer elaborates that viewing oneself as equal to others in one's society and at the same time viewing one's society as fundamentally superior to other societies may cause an uncomfortable cognitive dissonance.
^ Egalitarian : Jeremy Bentham incorporate the essential component of moral equality by means of the formula, "Each to count for one and none for more than one." Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) expressed the same idea in the following statement: "The good of any individual is of more importance, from the point of view (if I may say so) of the Universe, than the good of any other.- Normative Ethics 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.tamucc.edu [Source type: Original source]
.^ This is the sense in which he means that reason may push people to accept a broader utilitarian stance.- Ethics Text page 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pirate.shu.edu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ For to what to be skeptical about in a topic (especially one that is both logical and accepted by well educated people) one must know a more reasonable alternative.- UTILITARIANISM: the ethical theory for all times. 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC skeptically.org [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
^ Act utilitarians, on the other hand, do not accept human rights as moral principles in and of themselves, but that does not mean they are rejected altogether.- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
Critics (e.g., Binmore 2005) point out that this cognitive dissonance is apparently not very strong, since people often knowingly ignore the interests of faraway societies quite similar to their own. They also note that the "ought" of the quoted paragraph applies only to someone who has already accepted the premise that all societies are equally important.
.^ [FN5] Some people are persuaded by this argument.- PERSON-AFFECTING UTILITARIANISM AND POPULATION POLICY 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.public.iastate.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Some utilitarians accepted the force of the counterexample argument.
^ Singer has responded that his argument in Expanding the Circle wasn't intended to provide a complete philosophical justification for a utilitarian categorical imperative, but merely to provide a plausible explanation for how some people come to accept utilitarianism.
Criticism and defense
Aggregating utility
.^ John Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ The Greatest Happiness Principle and Other Early German Anticipations of Utilitarian Theory .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
He argues that this entails treating a group of many as if it were a single sentient entity, mistakenly ignoring the separation of consciousness.
[17] Animal Rights advocate
Richard Ryder calls this the 'boundary of the individual', through which neither pain nor pleasure may pass.
[18] Thus the aggregation of utility becomes futile as both pain and happiness are intrinsic to and inseparable from the consciousness in which they are felt, rendering impossible the task of adding up the various pleasures of multiple individuals.
However, it should be noted that the apparent separation and consistency of individual consciousness, which is both a strong human intuition and an implicit premise in this critique, is itself a subject of debate and criticism in the
philosophy of mind.
Predicting consequences
Daniel Dennett uses the case of the
Three Mile Island accident as an example of the difficulty in calculating happiness.
[19] .^ Was the near-meltdown that occurred at this nuclear power plant a good or a bad thing (according to utilitarianism)?- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.martinfrost.ws [Source type: Original source]
- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Second, Mill is not a preference utilitarian in the sense that things are good simply for the reason that people happen to prefer them.- The International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC libarts.wsu.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ If one were substantially more affluent than this person, giving him money would cause less harm to oneself than good to him, and therefore would be the utilitarian thing to do.- utilitarianism@Everything2.com 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.everything2.com [Source type: Original source]
.^ He points out that its long-term effects on nuclear policy would be considered beneficial by many and might outweigh the negative consequences.- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ This would be bad even if I never found out that there were no more rhinos left in the world - even if it had no effect whatsoever on my conscious life.- 20th WCP: Preference-utilitarianism and Past Preferences 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.bu.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ Let us consider a famous act, which we would suppose to have a lot of significant consequences, and a less famous act.- ACT UTILITARIANISM AND DECISION PROCEDURES 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC kant1.chch.ox.ac.uk [Source type: Original source]
His conclusion is that it is still too early, 30 years after the event, for utilitarianism to weigh all the evidence and reach a definite conclusion.
.^ Utilitarians note that utilitarianism seems to be the unspoken principle used by both advocates and critics of nuclear power.- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ From my experience, when they're not being used synonymously, people use the term 'ethics' to describe functional or utilitarian social principles, and 'morals' to describe authoritative or ideal principles.- Daylight Atheism > The Roots of Morality IV: The Theistic Rubber Stamp 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.daylightatheism.org [Source type: Original source]
^ Not having a firm background in philosophy, perhaps I am off the mark here, but The Gay Species seems to be refering to a form of Utilitarianism radically different to what Ebon has been advocating.- Daylight Atheism > The Roots of Morality IV: The Theistic Rubber Stamp 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.daylightatheism.org [Source type: Original source]
[citation needed] That something cannot be determined at the moment is common in science and frequently resolved with later advancements.
Utilitarians, however, are not required to have perfect knowledge; indeed, certain knowledge of consequences is impossible because consequences are in the unexperienced future. Utilitarians simply try their best to maximise happiness (or other forms of utility) and, to do this, make their best estimates of the consequences. If the consequences of a decision are particularly unclear, it may make sense to follow an ethical rule which has promoted the most utility in the past. Utilitarians also note that people trying to further their own interests frequently run into situations in which the consequences of their decisions are very unclear. This does not mean, however, that they are unable to make a decision; much the same applies to utilitarianism.
Anthony Kenny argues against utilitarianism on the grounds that
determinism is either true or false: if it is true, we have no choice over our actions; if it is false, the consequences of our actions are unpredictable, not least because they depend upon the actions of others whom we cannot predict.
[20]
Importance of intentions
Utilitarianism has been criticised for looking only at the results of actions, not at the desires or intentions that motivate them, which many consider important, too. An action intended to cause harm but which inadvertently causes good would be judged equal to the good result of an action done with the best intentions. Many utilitarians argue that utilitarianism applies not only to results but also to desires and dispositions, praise and blame, and rules, institutions and punishment. Bad intentions may cause harm (to the agent and to others) even if they do not result in bad acts. Once this is recognised, supporters argue that utilitarianism becomes a much more complex, and rich, moral theory, and may align far more closely with our moral intuitions.
Furthermore, many utilitarians view morality as a personal guide rather than a means to judge the actions of other people, or actions which have already been performed: morality is something to be looked at when deciding what to do. In this sense, intentions are all that matter, because the consequences cannot be known with certainty until the decision has been made.
.^ Henry Sidgwick, Essays on Ethics and Method , ed.- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Henry Sidgwicks Practical Ethics .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Henry Sidgwick's practical Ethics: A Defense .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Human rights
Utilitarians argue that justification of
slavery,
torture or mass murder would require unrealistically large benefits to outweigh the direct and extreme suffering to victims. Utilitarianism would also require the indirect impact of social acceptance of inhumane policies to be taken into consideration, and general anxiety and fear could increase for all if human rights are commonly ignored.
Act and rule utilitarians differ in how they treat
human rights themselves.
.^ Under rule utilitarianism, a human right can easily be considered a moral rule.- yawiki.org entry for Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC yawiki.org [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ Anyway, even if rule utilitarianism accords with some common substantive moral intuitions, it still seems counterintuitive in other ways.- Consequentialism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC plato.stanford.edu [Source type: Original source]
^ While it is natural to consider only the well being of humans when interpreting this doctrine, some utilitarians count the interests of any and all sentient beings when assessing overall utility.
Act utilitarians, on the other hand, do not accept human rights as moral principles in and of themselves, but that does not mean that they reject them altogether: first, most act utilitarians, as explained above, would agree that acts such as enslavement and
genocide always cause great unhappiness and very little happiness; second, human rights could be considered rules of thumb so that, although torture might be acceptable under some circumstances, as a rule it is immoral; and, finally, act utilitarians often support human rights in a
legal sense because utilitarians support laws that cause more good than harm.
Lack of convincing proof
Another criticism of utilitarianism is that it is not proven, either by science or by logic, to be the correct ethical system. Supporters claim that this is common to all ethical schools, and indeed the
system of logic itself, and will always remain so unless the problem of the
regress argument, or at least the
is-ought problem, is satisfactorily resolved.
.^ Critical Review of Rawls's Political Liberalism : A Utilitarian and Decision-Theoretical Analysis of the Main Arguments .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ The Greatest Happiness Principle and Other Early German Anticipations of Utilitarian Theory .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Mill's argument for utilitarianism holds that pleasure is the only thing desired and that, therefore, pleasure is the only thing desirable. Critics argue that this is like saying that things visible are things seen, or that the only things audible are things heard. A thing is "visible" if it can be seen and "desirable" if it ought to be desired. Thus the word "desirable" presupposes an ethical theory: we cannot infer what is desirable from what is desired. This criticism, however, reads the word "desirable" as "able to be desired" rather than "worth being desired", and does not take into account the moral assessment that must take place in order to categorise something as "desirable", which does not occur when categorising the same thing as "visible" or "audible".
Individual interests vs. a greater sum of lesser interests
Critics have also asked why one should follow utilitarianism instead of
ethical egoism. The
legal system might punish behavior that harms others, but this incentive is not active in a situation where one can personally gain by breaking it without punishment. One egoist, however, may propose means to maximise self-interest that conflict with the means proposed by another egoist. As a result, it behooves them to compromise with one another in order to avoid conflict, out of self-interest. The means proposed may incidentally coincide with those prescribed by utilitarianism, but the foundational ethical imperative would not, of course, be utilitarian.
.^ Another reason for an egoist to become a utilitarian was proposed by Peter Singer in Practical Ethics .- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- Utilitarianism 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC pustakalaya.olenepal.org [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ I do not propose that utilitarian ethics can sustain itself.- Further Thoughts on Ethics, Post Jesus « Carried The Cross 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC carriedthecross.wordpress.com [Source type: Original source]
^ Peter Singer, Practical Ethics , 2d ed.- Between the Species - Animal Rights Theory and Utilitarianism: RelativeNormative Guidance - Francione 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC cla.calpoly.edu [Source type: Original source]
He presents the
paradox of hedonism, which holds that, if your only goal in life is personal happiness, you will never be happy: you need something to be happy about. One goal that Singer feels is likely to bring about personal happiness is the desire to improve the lives of others; that is, to make others happy.
.^ This argument is similar to the one for virtue ethics .- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
^ This argument is similar to the one for virtue ethics.
^ In virtue of such similarities, the objection Moore urges against Mill is equally applicable to Aristotle’s arguments.- Online Library of Liberty - Mill's Utilitarianism - The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Volume X - Essays on Ethics, Religion, and Society 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC oll.libertyfund.org [Source type: Original source]
Infinitarian paralysis
Some modern cosmology theories predict an infinite Universe.
[21] Philosopher
Nick Bostrom claims that in an infinite universe there is an infinite number of planets and each of them has "non‐zero chance of giving rise to intelligent life". According to the philosopher, this means that in infinite universe there is (with
probability of one) an infinite number of intelligent beings and therefore an infinite amount of pain and pleasure. However, we can affect only finite amount of pain and pleasure. Yet an infinite quantity can not be changed by adding or subtracting a finite quantity.
[22]According to
Nick Bostrom, this means that "every possible act of ours therefore has the same net effect on the total amount of good and bad in a canonically infinite world: none whatsoever."
[22] He further states that we can not use an ethical theory which combined with our current best scientific guesses means that it is always ethically indifferent what we do.
[22]Reasons why utilitarianism may remain useful include that the effects of actions might not be finite
[23], the limitation to the possible utility on a single planet
[24], and the argument that while the universe might be infinite, its mass, number of planets, useful
energy and hence possible intelligent life all appear to be finite.
[25]Karl Marx's criticisms
| “ |
Not even excepting our philosopher, Christian Wolff, in no time and in no country has the most homespun commonplace ever strutted about in so self-satisfied a way. .^ Utility and the Utility Principle: Hume Smith Bentham Mill .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
He simply reproduced in his dull way what Helvétius and other Frenchmen had said with esprit in the 18th century. To know what is useful for a dog, one must study dog-nature. This nature itself is not to be deduced from the principle of utility. Applying this to man, he that would criticise all human acts, movements, relations, etc., by the principle of utility, must first deal with human nature in general, and then with human nature as modified in each historical epoch. Bentham makes short work of it. With the driest naiveté he takes the modern shopkeeper, especially the English shopkeeper, as the normal man. Whatever is useful to this queer normal man, and to his world, is absolutely useful. This yard-measure, then, he applies to past, present, and future. The Christian religion, e.g., is "useful," "because it forbids in the name of religion the same faults that the penal code condemns in the name of the law." Artistic criticism is "harmful," because it disturbs worthy people in their enjoyment of Martin Tupper, etc. With such rubbish has the brave fellow, with his motto, "nulla dies sine line!," piled up mountains of books.[26] |
” |
Marx's accusation is twofold. In the first place, he says that the theory of utility is true by definition and thus does not really add anything meaningful. For Marx, a productive inquiry would have to investigate what sorts of things are good for people; that is, what our nature which is alienated under capitalism really is. Second, he says that Bentham fails to take account of the changing character of people, and hence the changing character of what is good for them. This criticism is especially important for Marx, because he believed that all important statements were contingent upon particular historical conditions.
Marx argues that
human nature is dynamic, so the concept of a single utility for all humans is one-dimensional and not useful. When he decries Bentham's application of the 'yard measure' of now to 'the past, present and future', he decries the implication that society, and people, have always been, and will always be, as they are now; that is, he criticizes
essentialism. As he sees it, this implication is conservatively used to reinforce institutions he regarded as
reactionary. Just because in this moment religion has some positive consequences, says Marx, doesn't mean that viewed historically it isn't a regressive institution that should be abolished.
Marx's criticism is more a criticism of Bentham's views (or similar views) of utility, than utilitarianism itself. Utilitarians would not deny that different things make different people happy, and that what promotes happiness changes over time. Neither would utilitarians deny the importance of investigations into what promotes utility.
Marx's criticism applies to all philosophy which does not take explicit account of the movement of history (against
dialectics). While he is right that all things change, and that it is necessary to take account of this when making practical judgements, this doesn't mean that it isn't useful to have a theory which gives some means to evaluate those changes themselves.
Also, utilitarianism was originally developed as a challenge to the status quo. The demand that everyone count for one, and one only, was anathema to the elitist society of Victorian Britain.[citation needed]
Although Marx criticized utilitarianism, some
Marxist philosophers have used utilitarian principles as arguments for political
socialism.
The Wittgensteinian Critique
Contemporary philosophers such as Matthew Ostrow have critiqued utilitarianism from a distinctly
Wittgensteinian perspective. According to these philosophers, utilitarians have expanded the very meaning of pleasure to the point of linguistic incoherence.
.^ On the Cross of Mere Utility: Utilitarianism, Sacrifices, and the Value of Persons .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ Brink, Kagan, Utilitarianism and Self-Sacrifice .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ The Self-other Asymmetry and Act Utilitarianism .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Of course, the utilitarian will deny this contention altogether, claiming that ascetics also seek pleasure, but have merely chosen an alternative path in which to achieve it.
Yet such an argument is implicitly tautological ("What is it that people want? Pleasure. But what is pleasure? What people want."). The utilitarian therefore has no ultimate justification for primarily valuing pleasure, other than to say that "this is the way it should be." In this critique, utilitarianism is thus ultimately reduced to a form of dishonest
ethical intuitionism, unable to recognize or acknowledge its own groundlessness.
Criticism of other schools
.^ The Greatest Happiness Principle and Other Early German Anticipations of Utilitarian Theory .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
See also
Notes
- ^ Jeremy Bentham An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
- ^ Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 28. ISBN 0-415-22094-7 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."
- ^ Jeremy Bentham An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Chapter I: On principle of Utility
- ^ Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.
- ^ a b John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism Chapter II: What Utilitarianism is. Citata: „Few human creatures would consent to changed into any of the lower animals for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast pleasures“
- ^ Bentham, Jeremy, The Rationale of Reward (London: Robert Heward, 1830), p. 206
- ^ Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, 'Introductory' of main text, p. 68.
- ^ David Lyons, Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism, 1965.
- ^ Allen Habib (2008), "Promises", in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ Karl R.Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies, London 1945
- ^ utilitarianism.com: The pinprick argument
- ^ Fabian Fricke - Verschiedene Versionen des negativen Utilitarismus
- ^ Open Directory - Negative Utilitarianism
- ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: The Repugnant Conclusion Authors: Jesper Ryberg, Torbjörn Tännsjö, Gustaf Arrhenius
- ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Repugnant Conclusion
- ^ Shaw, William H. Contemporary Ethics: taking account of utilitarianism. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1999. pp. 31-35
- ^ Rawls, John A Theory Of Justice. Harvard University Press, 1971. pp. 22-27
- ^ Ryder, Richard D. Painism: A Modern Morality. Centaur Press, 2001. pp. 27-29
- ^ Dennett, Daniel (1995), Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-82471-X.
- ^ Anthony Kenny What I Believe p75–80
- ^ NASA: WMAP's Universe - Is the Universe Infinite?, Foundations of Big Bang Cosmology
- ^ a b c Nick Bostrom - The infinitarian challenge to aggregative ethics (2008)
- ^ Argument to Act Utilitarianism “infiniarian paralysis”, retrieved 29 Dec 2009
- ^ millongenerations
- ^ The Universe Might Last Forever, Astronomers Say, but Life Might Not, New York Times, Jan 1, 2002, Ultimate fate of the universe, Rüdiger Vaas: DARK ENERGY AND LIFE’S ULTIMATE FUTURE, arXiv:physics/0703183v1
- ^ Das Kapital Volume I Chapter 24 endnote 50
References and further reading
.^ Cornman, James, et al.- Utilitarianism.eu 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitarianism.eu [Source type: Original source]
- What is Utilitarianism? 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC ipedia.net [Source type: Original source]
.^ Brad Hooker, ed., Rationality, Rules, and Utility: New Essays on the Moral Philosophy of Richard Brandt .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ David Lyons, Rights, Welfare, and Mills Moral Theory and Necip Fikri Alican, Mills Principle of Utility: a Defense of John Stuart Mills Notorious Proof G.W. SMITH .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
^ David Lyons, Moral Aspects of Legal Theory: Essays on Law, Justice and Political Responsibility .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 28. ISBN 0-415-22094-7
Silverstein, Harry S. A Defence of Cornman’s Utilitarian Kantian Principle, Philosophical Studies (Dordrecht u.a.) 23, 212–215. 1972
Singer, Peter. The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1981. [ISBN 0-374-15112-1]
Singer, Peter. .
Stokes, Eric.^ Cambridge University Press Last updated: October 2009 design by oxogen .- Utilitas - Journal contents: Vol.1 No.1 to current issue 16 January 2010 10:010 UTC www.utilitas.org.uk [Source type: Academic]
The English Utilitarians and India, Clarendon Press, 1963. [ASIN B0026QQ5GE]
Sumner, L. Wayne, Abortion: A Third Way, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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