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Mount Vesuvius
Mt. .Vesuvius as seen from the ruins of Pompeii, which was destroyed in the eruption of AD 79.^ In destroying Pompeii, Vesuvius also preserved it. Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES] ^ Mt Vesuvius is perhaps best known for burying the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum with hot lava flows and debris in A.D. 79. Newsletter of March 2005 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.theyfly.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES] ^ The ancient naturalist Pliny the Elder was killed while observing the eruption in AD79 that destroyed Pompeii . Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General] The active cone is the high peak on the left side; the smaller one on the right is part of the Somma caldera wall.
Elevation	1,281 m (4,203 ft)
Location
Mount Vesuvius Province of Naples, Italy
Coordinates	40°49′N 14°26′E / 40.817°N 14.433°E / 40.817; 14.433Coordinates: 40°49′N 14°26′E / 40.817°N 14.433°E / 40.817; 14.433
Geology
Type	Stratovolcano
Age of rock	25,000 years before present to 1944
Volcanic arc/belt	Campanian volcanic arc
Last eruption	1944
Climbing
Easiest route	Walk

Origin of the name

• Heracles was a son of the Greek god Zeus and the queen Alcmene of Thebes. Zeus was also known as Huēs (Template:Polyonic) in his aspect as the god of rains and dews. Heracles was thus alternatively known as Huēsou huios, "Son of Hues." Transliterating the "ου" as "V" (as is normally done), and the other upsilons (with rough breathing) also by V (rather than the usual "HY") and changing to the Latin nominative ending "us", gives VESVVIVS – Vesuvius.
• From the Oscan word festf which means "smoke".
• From the Proto-Indo-European root ves- = "hearth"^{[citation needed]}

Physical appearance

A view of the crater wall of Vesuvius, with Naples in the background

Formation

A view of Somma-Vesuvius, from a convent on the Sorrento Peninsula

Eruptions

An aerial photo of Vesuvius

Before AD 79

• The Basal Pumice (Pomici di Base) eruption, 18,300 years ago, VEI 6, was probably the most violent of these eruptions and saw the original formation of the Somma caldera.^ A new model for the formation of the Somma Caldera.
  • Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Emperor Wu Di about 1,300 years ago.
  • Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ The Pomici di Base plinian eruption of Somma–Vesuvius.
  • Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]
  
  .The eruption was followed by a period of much less violent, lava producing eruptions.
• The Green Pumice (Pomici Verdoline) eruption, 16,000 years ago, VEI 5.
• The Mercato eruption also known as Pomici Gemelle or Ottaviano 6940 BC ±100 years, VEI 5, followed a smaller explosive eruption around 11,000 years ago (called the Lagno Amendolare eruption).
• The Avellino eruption (Pomici di Avellino), 2420 BC ± 40 years, VEI 5, followed two smaller explosive eruptions around 5,000 years ago.^ They are usually the most violent eruptions, even if there are some intermediate eruptions with comparable VEI. Volcanologists distinguish between "open-conduit" conditions at Vesuvius, when eruptions are frequent but generally not explosive and lava is often visible in the volcano's central cone, and "obstructed-conduit" periods when lava is generally not visible and eruptions are rare but highly explosive.
  • Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Because of this, my office received more that 3,000 phone calls and the mothers began looking for their children and preparing for the eruption.
  • VESUVIUS: The making of a catastrophe 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.westnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ I guess you won't be calling and begging for your job back when it gets better like you did a year ago.
  • JG-TC.com > News > More than 20 to lose jobs at Charleston's Vesuvius plant 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.jg-tc.com [Source type: General]
  
  .The Avellino eruption vent was apparently 2 km west of the current crater, and the eruption destroyed several Bronze Age settlements.^ In the towns below it, most people would not have known that Vesuvius was a volcano or that a Bronze Age settlement in the area had been annihilated almost 2,000 years before.
  • Resurrecting Pompeii | History & Archaeology | Smithsonian Magazine 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.smithsonianmag.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Coulomb stress change on fault A caused by a 0.1 km 3 eruption from a 5-km-deep magma reservoir, as a function of the apparent friction coefficient and fault dip.
  • Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]
  
  .The remarkably well-preserved remains of one were discovered in May 2001 near Nola by Italian archaeologists, with huts, pots, livestock and even the footprints of animals and people, as well as skeletons.^ Along the seafront archaeologists in the 1980s discovered the remains of nearly 300 victims.
  • Resurrecting Pompeii | History & Archaeology | Smithsonian Magazine 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.smithsonianmag.com [Source type: General]
  
  .The residents had hastily abandoned the village, leaving it to be buried under pumice and ash in much the same way that Pompeii was later preserved.^ Centuries later archaeological excavations unearthed clues to the dwellers lives which lay buried under layers of volcanic rubble.
  • Reviews: Bodies from the Ash by James M. Deem 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.jamesmdeem.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Juneau Public Libraries " Thoroughly eerie and completely engrossing , this is the story of a few days in August, AD 79, when the thriving city of Pompeii was completely buried beneath many feet of pumice and ash.
  • Reviews: Bodies from the Ash by James M. Deem 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.jamesmdeem.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ For the next twelve hours, pumice and ash fall from this cloud onto Pompeii.
  • Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^[10][5] .The eruption was larger than the ones of AD 79 (VEI 5) and 1631 (VEI 4) with pyroclastic surge deposits distributed to the northwest of the vent, the surges travelling as far as 15 km from it, and lie up to 3 m deep in the area now occupied by Naples.^ The last large pyroclastic eruption was in 1631.
  • Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Wilde Awards 2005 (Best Older Nonfiction): "The author writes clearly [about] the happening and history of the 79 AD eruption.
  • Reviews: Bodies from the Ash by James M. Deem 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.jamesmdeem.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ The damages from such an eruption would exceed those of A.D. 79 and 1631 when entire cities in the area were totally destroyed.
  • VESUVIUS: The making of a catastrophe 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.westnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^[11]

.The volcano then entered a stage of more frequent, but less violent, eruptions until the most recent Plinian eruption, which destroyed Pompeii.^ The ancient naturalist Pliny the Elder was killed while observing the eruption in AD79 that destroyed Pompeii .

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ They are usually the most violent eruptions, even if there are some intermediate eruptions with comparable VEI. Volcanologists distinguish between "open-conduit" conditions at Vesuvius, when eruptions are frequent but generally not explosive and lava is often visible in the volcano's central cone, and "obstructed-conduit" periods when lava is generally not visible and eruptions are rare but highly explosive.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

^ Very interesting information about that amazing ...more As I've always had an interest in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the resulting destruction of Pompeii, this book really hit the spot.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

.The last of these may have been in 217 BC.^[5] There were earthquakes in Italy during that year and the sun was reported as being dimmed by a haze or dry fog.^ The coastal towns grew disproportionally where during the last 20 years proliferated a shameful abuse of the area.

• VESUVIUS: The making of a catastrophe 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.westnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The historical record describes a massive earthquake in 62 A.D. There are also signs that in the years and months that followed many other small tremors shook Pompeii.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ On the contrary, those which grow on the side opposite to the sun, not being so porous, harden in drying, because the sun draws the moisture from trees no less than from the earth.

• LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book II 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC penelope.uchicago.edu [Source type: Original source]

.Plutarch wrote of the sky being on fire near Naples and Silius Italicus mentioned in his epic poem Punica^[12] that Vesuvius had thundered and produced flames worthy of Mount Etna in that year, although both authors were writing around 250 years later.^ From across the bay, a seventeen year old youth watched as Mount Vesuvius turned into a fuming monster.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ MACKDADDY wrote on Feb 5, 2009 12:19 PM: " It is clear that HerChild, medic57, and CHILL! have never been inside the Vesuvius plant!

• JG-TC.com > News > More than 20 to lose jobs at Charleston's Vesuvius plant 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.jg-tc.com [Source type: General]

^ It is moreover said that in former times fires under Vesuvius existed in abundance, and thence evolved flames about the fields.

• LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book II 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC penelope.uchicago.edu [Source type: Original source]

Greenland ice core samples of around that period show relatively high acidity, which is assumed to have been caused by atmospheric hydrogen sulfide.^[13]

Fresco of Bacchus and Agathodaimon with Mount Vesuvius, as seen in Pompeii's House of the Centenary.

.The mountain was then quiet for hundreds of years and was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards, except at the top which was craggy.^ They did not realize that the black fertile earth they cultivated was a legacy of the mountain of the west -- a volcano that spewed forth destruction every few hundred years.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Full Synopsis NOVA: Garden of Eden Release: 2000 Two hundred million years ago, as the supercontinent of Pangea broke up, a tiny...

• NOVA: Deadly Shadow of Vesuvius (1998) - Synopsis - MSN Movies 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC movies.msn.com [Source type: General]

.Within a large circle of nearly perpendicular cliffs was a flat space large enough for the encampment of the army of the rebel gladiator Spartacus in 73 BC. This area was doubtless a crater.^ I was fascinated to read that in 73BC,Spartacus and rebel slaves took refuge in the seemingly dead crater.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

.The mountain may have had only one summit at that time, judging by a wall painting, "Bacchus and Vesuvius", found in a Pompeiian house, the House of the Centenary (Casa del Centenario).^ The mountain's summit is one of the best astronomical sites in the world and several leading observatories can be found there as a result.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The recommendations of these authorities to the Commission to support the interdisciplinary research VESUVIUS 2000 were, however, outweighted by a subjective review of only one very short paragraph.

• VESUVIUS: The making of a catastrophe 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.westnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ But this time, I looked at the painting a couple of days after returning from a trip to Naples and seeing the mountain itself.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

Several surviving works written over the 200 years preceding the AD 79 eruption describe the mountain as having had a volcanic nature, although Pliny the Elder did not depict the mountain in this way in his Naturalis Historia:^[14]

.

• The Greek historian Strabo (ca 63 BC–AD 24) described the mountain in Book V, Chapter 4 of his Geographica^[15] as having a predominantly flat, barren summit covered with sooty, ash-coloured rocks and suggested that it might once have had "craters of fire". He also perceptively suggested that the fertility of the surrounding slopes may be due to volcanic activity, as at Mount Etna.

• In Book II of De Architectura,^[16] the architect Vitruvius (ca 80-70 BC -?^ On May 8, 1902, Mount Pélée erupted violently, sending a super-hot cloud of ash, rock and gas (better known as a pyroclastic flow) directly into the city of Saint Pierre.
  • Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Location: Naples , Italy Elevation: 1281 metres Climb: Yes Mount Vesuvius is a volcano that earned its place in the history books in 79 AD, when an eruption covered the town of Pompeii under a layer of lava.
  • Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ From relative safety, Pliny, the nephew of a naturalist, carefully noted the timing of the 18-hour eruption, the shape of the mushroom cloud, the showers of volcanic ash and rock.
  • Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ) reported that fires had once existed abundantly below the mountain and that it had spouted fire onto the surrounding fields. .He went on to describe Pompeiian Pumice as having been burnt from another species of stone.

• Diodorus Siculus (ca 90 BC–ca 30 BC), another Greek writer, wrote in Book IV of his Bibliotheca Historica that the Campanian plain was called fiery (Phlegrean) because of the mountain, Vesuvius, which had spouted flame like Etna and showed signs of the fire that had burnt in ancient history.^ Somma–Vesuvius and volcanism of the Campanian Plain.
  • Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]
  
  ^ Thus that which we call sponge-stone, or Pompeian pumice-stone, burnt from another species of stone, appears to be acted on by fire so as to possess a quality of this sort.
  • LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book II 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC penelope.uchicago.edu [Source type: Original source]
  
  ^ The species of sponge-stone, however, thence obtained, is not found except in the neighbourhood of Ætna and the hills of Mysia, which the Greeks call κατακεκαυμένοι , and places of such description.
  • LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture — Book II 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC penelope.uchicago.edu [Source type: Original source]
  
  ^[9]

.By AD 79 the area was, as now, densely populated with villages, towns and small cities like Pompeii, and its slopes were covered in vineyards and farms.^ It can be reached by plane from Iqaluit , the capital and largest town on Baffin Island, reached in turn from other Canadian cities like Montreal and Ottawa .

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ There were many small villages and towns on the surrounding islands.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ This ripe and teeming city is one of the most densely populated places in the world.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Eruption of AD 79

Computer-generated imagery of the eruption of Vesuvius in BBC/Discovery Channel's co-production Pompeii.

.By the 1st century, Pompeii was only one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius.^ The two towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum went virtually forgotten until excavations began in the 18 th century.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ It's amazing how much sheer power was released in from Mount Vesuvius in that one eruption!

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

^ So the book takes place over the 2 days prior to Pompeii being UTTERLY DESTROYED by Mount Vesuvius, plus the 2 days that the eruption lasts.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. .Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the AD 79 eruption.^ Derivation of the name "Plinian" ("A Plinian eruption column takes its name from Pliny the Elder, a Roman nobleman and historian who died during the 79 A.D. eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Italy.."

• # Pompeii and Herculaneum - Facts, Images & Maps 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.link-mail.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ NARRATOR: But how well does the extensive archaeological record in Pompeii support this understanding of the 79 A.D. eruption?

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The damages from such an eruption would exceed those of A.D. 79 and 1631 when entire cities in the area were totally destroyed.

• VESUVIUS: The making of a catastrophe 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.westnet.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.The 79 eruption, which is thought to have lasted about 19 hours, released about 1 cubic mile (4 cubic kilometres) of ash and rock over a wide area to the south and south-east of the crater, with about 3 m (10 ft) of tephra falling on Pompeii.^ What can these victims reveal about the last hours of Pompeii?

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Scientists have been studying the area ever since to learn about the effects of the eruption and the return to life in the area (Lauber 24).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ So the book takes place over the 2 days prior to Pompeii being UTTERLY DESTROYED by Mount Vesuvius, plus the 2 days that the eruption lasts.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

The white ash produced by this eruption is mainly of leucite and phonolite.

Foreshocks

.The AD 79 eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years beforehand on 5 February, 62,^[17] which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, and particularly to Pompeii.^ Earthquakes often precede the eruption of a volcano.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, just opened its Pompeii and the Roman Villa: Art and Culture around the Bay of Naples exhibit this past weekend.

• Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius on Flickr - Photo Sharing! 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.flickr.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ NARRATOR: But how well does the extensive archaeological record in Pompeii support this understanding of the 79 A.D. eruption?

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted.^[18] .However, this may have been a tectonic event rather than one associated with the re-awakening of the volcano.^ There is, however, one exception to the plate-tectonic control on where volcanoes form.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ However, it is a composite volcano that is located on a convergent plate boundary (place where tectonic plates are colliding together).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ And no one wants to know the answer more than the scientists charged with monitoring the volcano.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[19]

.Another smaller earthquake took place in 64 AD; it was recorded by Suetonius in his biography of Nero,^[20] in De Vita Caesarum, and by Tacitus in Book XV of Annales^[21] because it took place whilst Nero was in Naples performing for the first time in a public theatre.^ Here was another headache to handle because I was in the wrong place at the wrong time.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ I read this book when it was first published but taking the time to listen to it being read has bought a whole new dimension to the story.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

^ Location: Naples , Italy Elevation: 1281 metres Climb: Yes Mount Vesuvius is a volcano that earned its place in the history books in 79 AD, when an eruption covered the town of Pompeii under a layer of lava.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Suetonius recorded that the emperor continued singing through the earthquake until he had finished his song, whilst Tacitus wrote that the theatre collapsed shortly after being evacuated.

Outbreak of the Vesuvius. Painting by Norwegian painter I.C. Dahl (1826)

.The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region; the writer Pliny the Younger even wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania". In early August of AD 79, springs and wells dried up.^ On August 24, AD 79, these scrolls were suddenly covered by 65 feet of fast-flowing volcanic mud.

• Wired 11.05: Tales From the Crypt 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.wired.com [Source type: General]

^ POMPEII.....BEFORE AND AFTER After visiting Pompeii, on a recent trip to Rome, I was eager to read something about that fateful day in August,79 AD, when Mt.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

^ The author quoted passages written by Pliny, an admiral and philosopher who lived during that time period, AD 79.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

^[22] .Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August, 79^[18] becoming more frequent over the next four days, but the warnings were not recognised (it is worth noting the Romans had no word for volcano, and only a hazy concept of other similar mountains like Mount Etna, home of Vulcan), and on the afternoon of 24 August, a catastrophic eruption of the volcano started.^ And there is another warning sign -- frequent small earthquakes.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The word volcano comes from the Roman god Vulcan, god of fire.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Pompeii takes place several days before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

• Pompeii (Paperback) by Robert Harris - Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.goodreads.com [Source type: General]

The eruption devastated the region, burying Pompeii and other settlements. .By coincidence it was the day after Vulcanalia, the festival of the Roman god of fire.^ The word volcano comes from the Roman god Vulcan, god of fire.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[23][24]

Nature of the eruption

.The eruption of Vesuvius on 24 and 25 August, 79 AD, unfolded in two phases:^[25] a Plinian eruption that lasted eighteen to twenty hours and produced a rain of pumice southward of the cone that built up to depths of 2.8 metres (9 ft 2 in) at Pompeii, followed by a pyroclastic flow or nuée ardente in the second, Peléan phase that reached as far as Misenum but was concentrated to the west and northwest.^ Mount Vesuvius erupted violently on August 24, A.D. 79.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The last large pyroclastic eruption was in 1631.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The Ottaviano eruption of Somma–Vesuvius (8000 y BP): a magmatic alternating fall and flow-forming eruption.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

.Two pyroclastic flows engulfed Pompeii, burning and asphyxiating the stragglers who had remained behind.^ A moment later the heavier pyroclastic flow washed over Pompeii with a destructive of a tidal wave.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ But in the early morning of August 25th, a surge of toxic gas overcomes Pompeii and asphyxiates all who remained.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Oplontis and Herculaneum received the brunt of the flows and were buried in fine ash and pyroclastic deposits.^ The volcano is well known for its ash explosions and pyroclastic flows.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Immediately, it is followed by a ground-hugging flow of heavier ash and rock, which buries the city.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The flow of rock and ash that follows knocks down buildings and buries the dead.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[26]

The Two Plinys

Pliny the Younger

.The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger, who was 17 at the time of the eruption, to the historian Tacitus.^ The eruption was witnessed by Pliny the Younger who described the events in two letters to Tacitus.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Pliny the Younger was a scholar who watched the eruption cloud from eighteen miles away across the Bay of Naples, where he was staying with his uncle, Pliny the Elder (Van Rose 26).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ For insight into the events that destroyed Pompeii, Sigurdsson turned to an ancient document, the only eye witness account of 79 A.D., The Pliny Letters -- written by the youth who had watched the eruption from across the Bay of Naples.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[27] Observing it from Misenum (across the bay, approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the volcano) whilst his uncle was sailing closer, he saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain:

.

I cannot give you a more exact description of its appearance than by comparing to a pine tree; for it shot up to a great height in the form of a tall trunk, which spread out at the top as though into branches. ...^ A nearby visitors/cultural centre can give you more information about the mountain.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The risk of getting altitude sickness should not be underestimated and can occur on heights of 3000 metres or more, although usually most people will be fine up to 4000 metres.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ A cinder cone volcano is formed when an eruption hurls ash and rock that builds up, forming a steep-sided but not very tall volcano.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Occasionally it was brighter, occasionally darker and spotted, as it was either more or less filled with earth and cinders. (Sixth Book of Letters, Letter 16.)

.This was the eruption column, now estimated to have been more than 32 km (20 miles) tall.^ That's quite a bold step I'd say especially as religion was a far more vindictive affair than it is now.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ Lee is your replacing "every bit as beautiful" with "beautiful in its own right" because nothing can be more beautiful than the Renaissance posse in your estimation?

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ They know more than half a million people live in the path of the killer volcano, and they know that to pinpoint the exact timing of the eruption is nearly impossible.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^{[citation needed]}

.He described the cloud after a time rushing down the flanks of the mountain and covering everything around it, including the surrounding sea.^ Nevado del Ruiz erupted, melted the snow and ice at the summit, and sent a deadly mudflow rushing down the mountain.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The last major eruption was around 1655, although a piece of the top of the mountain came down in 1855/1856.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The standard tour, including transportation time and a kora around the mountain, takes a minimum of 10 days.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.This is known today as a pyroclastic flow, which is a cloud of superheated gas, ash and rock that erupts from a volcano.^ Or explosive with pyroclastic flows of gas, rock, and hot ash as in 79 A.D.?

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ On May 8, 1902, Mount Pélée erupted violently, sending a super-hot cloud of ash, rock and gas (better known as a pyroclastic flow) directly into the city of Saint Pierre.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ NARRATOR: The women choked to death on the cloud of hot volcanic ash and gas.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Geologists have used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 volcanic rocks and pieces of debris (e.g. roof tiles) found in .Pompeii to estimate the temperature of this pyroclastic flow.^ A moment later the heavier pyroclastic flow washed over Pompeii with a destructive of a tidal wave.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

(When molten rock solidifies, magnetic minerals in the rock record the direction of Earth's magnetic field. .If the material is heated above a certain temperature, known as the Curie temperature, the rock's magnetic field may be modified or completely reset.^ We restrict our examination to the instantaneous elastic effects, although viscoelastic rebound of the lower crust or heated rock surrounding a magma body may modify the transfer of stress.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

) .Most of the materials analyzed experienced temperatures between 240 °C (464 °F) and 340 °C (644 °F) (with a few areas showing lower temperatures of only 180 °C (356 °F)).^ Location: Patagonia , on the border between Chile and Argentina Elevation: 3375 metres Climb: Yes, but only very experienced climbers, and they need to be lucky.

• Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.This suggests that the ash cloud had a temperature of 850 °C (1,560 °F) when emerging from the mouth of Vesuvius, but had cooled to below 350 °C (662 °F) by the time it reached the city.^ A series of surges and flows on the eastern flank of Vesuvius does not reach the city.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ From relative safety, Pliny, the nephew of a naturalist, carefully noted the timing of the 18-hour eruption, the shape of the mushroom cloud, the showers of volcanic ash and rock.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.It is theorized that turbulence may have mixed cool air into the ash cloud.^ On May 8, 1902, Mount Pélée erupted violently, sending a super-hot cloud of ash, rock and gas (better known as a pyroclastic flow) directly into the city of Saint Pierre.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

(Cioni, et al., 2004). .This is now called the Plinian stage of the eruption, named after both the younger and elder Plinys.^ The ancient naturalist Pliny the Elder was killed while observing the eruption in AD79 that destroyed Pompeii .

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ Pliny the Younger was a scholar who watched the eruption cloud from eighteen miles away across the Bay of Naples, where he was staying with his uncle, Pliny the Elder (Van Rose 26).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The eruption was witnessed by Pliny the Younger who described the events in two letters to Tacitus.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Pliny stated that several earth tremors were felt at the time of the eruption and were followed by a very violent shaking of the ground.^ At the time I wondered why they felt so justified in their Refund request to stand their ground like that.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ Like Lieutenant Gerard trying to catch the Fugitive, several times I felt I had HSDS in my grip only to have Judy help them escape.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ After the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980, the United States government set up full-time volcano labs in California, Alaska, and Washington.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.He also noted that ash was falling in very thick sheets and the village he was in had to be evacuated.^ The combination of ash and thick lava in the eruptions make the sides very steep.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.He also said that the sun was blocked out by the eruption with the remaining daylight hours left in darkness, and that the sea was sucked away and forced back by an "earthquake" (a phenomenon now called a tsunami.^ Why did they remain when so many others fled the city during the early hours of the eruption?

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Roshan got right back in my face and said, "Now pick it up, Rick.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ NARRATOR: It wasn't until they witnessed more contemporary eruptions of other volcanoes that scientists understood what Pliny had observed 2000 years ago -- the dark and horrible cloud was probably what is now called a pyroclastic flow.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

)

Pliny the Elder

Pliny’s uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, and had meanwhile decided to take several ships to investigate the phenomenon at close hand. The fleet also attempted a rescue mission for those at the foot of the volcano when, as the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger arrived from a friend of Pliny’s living on the coast near the foot of the volcano imploring him to rescue her. .He set off across the bay but encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice and pieces of rock which, altering the shoreline and water depths, blocked his approach to the shore and prevented him from landing there.^ NARRATOR: Protected by thick stone walls, the family waited out the rock showers only to be suffocated later by volcanic gases and ash.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The prevailing southerly wind also stopped him landing there, but he continued south under it to Stabiae (about 4.5 km from Pompeii) where he landed and took shelter with Pomponianus, a friend. Pomponianus had already loaded a ship with possessions and was preparing to leave, but the wind was against him.

.Pliny and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain (probably pyroclastic flows and surges, which would later destroy Pompeii and Herculaneum).^ The ancient naturalist Pliny the Elder was killed while observing the eruption in AD79 that destroyed Pompeii .

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ NARRATOR: But there was no escape for the people of Herculaneum, scorched and suffocated in the burning surge cloud and then buried under a mountain of pyroclastic debris.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ NARRATOR: It wasn't until they witnessed more contemporary eruptions of other volcanoes that scientists understood what Pliny had observed 2000 years ago -- the dark and horrible cloud was probably what is now called a pyroclastic flow.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

After staying overnight, the party decided to evacuate in spite of the rain of tephra because of the continuing violent conditions threatening to collapse the building. Pliny, Pomponianus and their companions made their way back towards the beach with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall. By this time, there was so much ash in the air that the party could barely see through the murk and needed torches and lanterns to find their way. .They made it to the beach but found the waters too violently disturbed from the continuous earthquakes for them to escape safely by sea.^ NARRATOR: These columns are marked with burrows made by sea mollusks, proof that since the columns were constructed two thousand years ago they have been periodically submerged.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ At an on-going excavation site in Pompeii the mangled remains of two young women were found scattered in the street -- mowed down as they tried to escape.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Pliny the Elder collapsed and died, and in the first letter to Tacitus his nephew suggested that this was due to the inhalation of poisonous, sulphuric gases.^ The eruption was witnessed by Pliny the Younger who described the events in two letters to Tacitus.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.However, Stabiae was 16 km from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes, and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such as a stroke or heart attack.^ That's when they decided they liked Marty so much it would be more fun just to take the lesson directly from him and skip the Ghost Town class.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ However, if I am going to write about the mistakes of others, my sense of fair play suggests I should share some from my own closet as well.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ These two situations together can cause frustration, low self-esteem and failure for some students.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[28] His body was found with no apparent injuries on 26 August, after the plume had dispersed sufficiently for daylight to return.

Casualties from the eruption

Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above

The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum

.Along with Pliny the Elder, the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa (a son of the Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix) and his wife.^ The ancient naturalist Pliny the Elder was killed while observing the eruption in AD79 that destroyed Pompeii .

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ They were killed along with 39 other people during the 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen in Japan (Sutherland 15).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[29]

.Estimates of the population of Pompeii range from 10,000^[30] to 25,000,^[24] and Herculaneum is thought to have had a population of about 5,000.^[31] It is not known how many people the eruption killed, although around 1,150 remains of bodies – or casts made of their impressions in the ash deposits – have been recovered in and around Pompeii.^ This happened in 1845, killing 1,000 people.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ It is unclear how many people were killed in the aftermath of the eruption.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ The ash set like cement around the people killed in Pompeii.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[32] The remains of about 350 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980).^[33] However these figures must represent a great underestimation of the total number of deaths over the region affected by the eruption.

.Thirty-eight percent of the victims at Pompeii were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings.^ For the next twelve hours, pumice and ash fall from this cloud onto Pompeii.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses, with the smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano.^ Ash and other materials are also thrown out during the eruption and these also add to the changing shape of the volcano’s exterior.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ And like a number of other countries corrupt builders and regulatory bodies have resulted in buildings not being constructed accordingly.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ A cinder cone volcano is formed when an eruption hurls ash and rock that builds up, forming a steep-sided but not very tall volcano.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.This differs from modern experience, since over the last four hundred years only around 4% of victims have been killed by ash falls during explosive eruptions.^ Thirty-four thousand years ago a massive volcanic eruption formed this eight mile wide depression, or "caldera".

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Maurice Krafft was a volcanologist killed during the 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen in Japan.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ During the past 1000 years, eruptions of Vesuvius have often been accompanied by large earthquakes in the Apennines 50-60 km to the northeast.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

.The remaining 62% of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits,^[32] and thus were probably killed by them – probably from a combination of suffocation through ash inhalation and blast and debris thrown around.^ People in the nearby town of Herculaneum were also killed by the blast of hot ash and gas.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

In contrast to the victims found at Herculaneum, examination of cloth, frescoes and skeletons show that it is unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause.

.Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction, but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges.^ NARRATOR: But there was no escape for the people of Herculaneum, scorched and suffocated in the burning surge cloud and then buried under a mountain of pyroclastic debris.

• Vesuvius Volcano Activity 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC cambodianonline.net [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.It is likely that most, or all, of the victims in this town were killed by the surges, particularly given evidence of high temperatures found on the skeletons of the victims found in the arched vaults, and the existence of carbonised wood in many of the buildings.^ A fluid inclusion and isotope study of calcsilicate ejecta from Mt Somma–Vesuvius: evidence for interaction of high-temperature hypersaline fluids with the sedimentary basement.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ Greece, like many countries in quake zones has building codes that require buildings to be constructed to provide reasonable levels of safety in the event of one.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

Pompeii and Herculaneum were never rebuilt, although surviving townspeople and probably looters did undertake extensive salvage work after the destructions. The eruption changed the course of the Sarno River and raised the sea beach, so that Pompeii was now neither on the river nor adjacent to the coast.

.The towns' locations were eventually forgotten until their accidental rediscovery in the 18th century.^ The two towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum went virtually forgotten until excavations began in the 18 th century.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Vesuvius itself underwent major changes – its slopes were denuded of vegetation and its summit had changed considerably due to the force of the eruption.^[34]

Date of the eruption

.The eruption of AD 79 was referred to by contemporary writers (apart from being described by Pliny) and is near universally accepted as having started on 24 August.^ Mount Vesuvius erupted violently on August 24, A.D. 79.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Compositional layering and syn-eruptive mixing of a periodically refilled shallow magma chamber, the AD 79 plinian eruption of Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ Both the degree of undersaturation in silica and the crystal content increase through time, being higher in rocks produced after the eruption at 472 AD (Pollena eruption).

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

.However archaeological excavations at Pompeii have uncovered some evidence suggesting that the town was buried about two or three months later.^ The two towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum went virtually forgotten until excavations began in the 18 th century.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ However, if I am going to write about the mistakes of others, my sense of fair play suggests I should share some from my own closet as well.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ The 1999 Houston Press Best Of Houston issue had named some obscure gay bar that went out of business a month later as the "Best Place to Swing Dance".

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^[35] For example, people buried in the ashes appear to be wearing warmer clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. The fresh fruit, olives and vegetables in the shops are typical of October, and conversely the summer fruit that would have been typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed over, and this would have happened around the end of October. The coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include a conmemorative coin that should have been minted at the end of September. .So far there is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.^ There is no such thing as a closed system.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

A possible explanation can be found in the Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution, which states that the eruption started around Oct 24 (?), 79 AD and ended on the Oct 28 ±1 day, 79 AD.^[5]

Later eruptions from the 3rd to the 19th century

.

An eruption of Vesuvius seen from Portici, by Joseph Wright (ca.^ The other day I looked at Joseph Wright of Derby's spectacular 18th-century painting of Vesuvius in eruption at Tate Britain.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ Upper image: The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, As Seen From Naples.

• Antique Prints of Volcanos and Volcanology - Vulkane 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.philographikon.com [Source type: General]

1774-6)

.Since the eruption of 79 AD, Vesuvius has erupted around three dozen times.^ Volatile content and degassing processes in the AD 79 magma chamber at Vesuvius (Italy).

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ The AD 472 bPollenaQ eruption: volcanological and petrological data for this poorly-known, plinian-type event at Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ Both the degree of undersaturation in silica and the crystal content increase through time, being higher in rocks produced after the eruption at 472 AD (Pollena eruption).

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

It erupted again in 203, during the lifetime of the historian Cassius Dio. In 472, it ejected such a volume of ash that ashfalls were reported as far away as Constantinople. .The eruptions of 512 were so severe that those inhabiting the slopes of Vesuvius were granted exemption from taxes by Theodoric the Great, the Gothic king of Italy.^ The second section of the curriculum unit will explore several famous volcanoes from around the world and significant volcanic eruptions connected to those volcanoes.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Further eruptions were recorded in 787, 968, 991, 999, 1007 and 1036 with the first recorded lava flows. The volcano became quiescent at the end of the 13th century and in the following years it again became covered with gardens and vineyards as of old. Even the inside of the crater was filled with shrubbery.

.Vesuvius entered a new and particularly destructive phase in December 1631, when a major eruption buried many villages under lava flows, killing around 3,000 people.^ This happened in 1845, killing 1,000 people.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ It is unclear how many people were killed in the aftermath of the eruption.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Within minutes, the poisonous cloud killed 34,000 people.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Torrents of boiling water were also ejected, adding to the devastation. Activity thereafter became almost continuous, with relatively severe eruptions occurring in 1660, 1682, 1694, 1698, 1707, 1737, 1760, 1767, 1779, 1794, 1822, 1834, 1839, 1850, 1855, 1861, 1868, 1872, 1906, 1926, 1929, and 1944.

Eruptions in the 20th century

The March 1944 eruption of Vesuvius, by Jack Reinhardt, B-24 tailgunner in the USAAF during WWII

.The eruption of 1906 was particularly destructive, killing over 100 people and ejecting the most lava ever recorded from a Vesuvian eruption.^ It is unclear how many people were killed in the aftermath of the eruption.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ They were killed along with 39 other people during the 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen in Japan (Sutherland 15).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

Ash is swept off the wings of a North American B-25 Mitchell medium bomber of the 340th Bombardment Group on March 23, 1944 after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

.The last major eruption was in March 1944 and it destroyed the villages of San Sebastiano al Vesuvio, Massa di Somma, Ottaviano, and part of San Giorgio a Cremano.^ In the aftermath of Krakatoa’s eruption, 165 villages were destroyed and nearly 37,000 people died.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[36] .At the time of the eruption, the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) 340th Bombardment Group was based at Pompeii Airfield near Terzigno, Italy, just a few kilometers from the eastern base of the mountain.^ After the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980, the United States government set up full-time volcano labs in California, Alaska, and Washington.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The tephra and hot ash was particularly damaging to the fabric control surfaces, the engines, and the Plexiglass windshields and gun turrets of the 340th's B-25 Mitchell medium bombers. .Although estimates ranged from 78 to 88 aircraft destroyed,^[36] no USAAF personnel were killed or seriously injured due to the eruption^[37] as World War II continued to rage in Italy.^ In the aftermath of Krakatoa’s eruption, 165 villages were destroyed and nearly 37,000 people died.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

From 6 January to 23 February 1944, lava flows appeared within the rim and there were outflows. The activity paused on 23 February and resumed on 13 March. .Small explosions then occurred until the major explosion took place on 18 March 1944.^[38] The eruption could be seen from Naples and several photos have been taken.^ Upper image: The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, As Seen From Naples.

• Antique Prints of Volcanos and Volcanology - Vulkane 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.philographikon.com [Source type: General]

^[39] .Several other USAAF groups were based near the volcano so different perspectives of the eruption and the damage caused to the local villages were recorded by USAAF photographers and personnel.^ Ash and other materials are also thrown out during the eruption and these also add to the changing shape of the volcano’s exterior.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ There are several points that I want my students to discuss after studying these volcanoes and their devastating eruptions.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ They study volcanoes so that they can tell when and how the volcano might erupt, and they record details of the eruptions.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[40]

The volcano has been quiescent since then. .Over the past few centuries, the quiet stages have varied from 18 months to 7½ years, making the current lull in activity the longest in nearly 500 years.^ The islanders tried to make Pele happy, but nevertheless, she erupted every few years.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.While Vesuvius is not thought likely to erupt in the immediate future, the danger posed by future eruptions is seen as very high in light of the volcano's tendency towards sudden, extremely violent explosions, and the very dense human population on and around the mountain.^ Eruptive dynamics and petrogenetic processes in a very shallow magma reservoir: the 1906 eruption of Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ I want my students to know that being a volcanologist can be very exciting and dangerous when the volcano is active.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Mount Vesuvius erupted violently on August 24, A.D. 79.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The future

The 1822 eruption was one of five explosive subplinian eruptions which have taken place since the 1631 eruption. The eruption column rose to about 14 kilometres (8.7 mi).

.Large plinian eruptions which emit magma in quantities of about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi), the most recent of which overwhelmed Pompeii, have happened after periods of inactivity of a few thousand years.^ Scientists have been studying the area ever since to learn about the effects of the eruption and the return to life in the area (Lauber 24).

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

.Subplinian eruptions producing about 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi), such as those of 472 and 1631, have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them.^ Thus the physical model proposed to explain the link between southern Apennine earthquakes and Vesuvius eruptions is consistent with the past 300-year record.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

^ Sub-Plinian eruptions occurred during the interval A.D. 79 to 1631, including those in A.D. 472 (~0.4 km 3 [ Rosi et al., 1983]), 512, and 1139.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

.Following the 1631 eruption until 1944 every few years saw a comparatively small eruption which emitted 0.001-0.01 km³ of magma.^ Magma contamination by direct wall rock interaction, constraints from xenoliths from the walls of a carbonate-hosted magma chamber (Vesuvius 1944 eruption).

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ New insights on the thermometamorphic–metasomatic magma chamber shell of the 1944 eruption of Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ Shallow and deep reservoirs involved in magma supply of the 1944 eruption of Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

.It seems that for Vesuvius the amount of magma expelled in an eruption increases very roughly linearly with the interval since the previous one, and at a rate of around 0.001 cubic kilometres (0.00024 cu mi) for each year.^ Fourteen years earlier I had been thoroughly outclassed in Spin Control by my former wife Pat in the Slapping Incident from Trilogy One.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ Eruptive dynamics and petrogenetic processes in a very shallow magma reservoir: the 1906 eruption of Vesuvius.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

^ During my March 2000 interview with a Houston Press reporter, by coincidence I made a discovery that raised a cloud of suspicion about a controversy from the previous year.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

This gives an extremely approximate figure of 0.06 cubic kilometres (0.014 cu mi) for an eruption after 60 years of inactivity.^[41]

.Magma sitting in an underground chamber for many years will start to see higher melting point constituents such as olivine crystallising out.^ It's such a wonderful exercise for pointing out the difference between what we think we see, and what we actually do see!

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ However, we also consider other types of volcanic sources, such as a spherical magma chamber, a sill, or a dike oriented perpendicular to the Apennine chain.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

The effect is to increase the concentration of dissolved gases (mostly steam and carbon dioxide) in the remaining liquid magma, making the subsequent eruption more violent.^[13] .As gas-rich magma approaches the surface during an eruption, the huge drop in pressure caused by the reduction in weight of the overlying rock (which drops to zero at the surface) causes the gases to come out of solution, the volume of gas increasing explosively from nothing to perhaps many times that of the accompanying magma.^ Vesuvian activity: Large-scale explosive Plinian eruptions, whose eruptive volumes are larger than 1 km 3 ; intermediate sub-Plinian explosive eruptions, with eruptive volumes of ~0.1 km 3 ; and small scale effusive eruptions with volumes of ~0.01 km 3 .

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

^ Roshan had put the pressure squarely on my shoulders and the pressure almost caused a huge blunder.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ U-series disequilibria in young (AD 1944) Vesuvius rocks, preliminary implications for magma residence times and volatile addition.

• Earth-prints: Crustal contamination and crystal entrapment during polybaric magma evolution at Mt.Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Italy: Geochemical and Sr isotope evidence 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.earth-prints.org [Source type: Academic]

Additionally, the removal of the lower melting point material will raise the concentration of felsic components such as silicates potentially making the magma more viscous, adding to the explosive nature of the eruption.

The emergency plan for an eruption therefore assumes that the worst case will be an eruption of similar size and type to the 1631 VEI 4^[42] one. .In this scenario the slopes of the mountain, extending out to about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the vent, may be exposed to pyroclastic flows sweeping down them, whilst much of the surrounding area could suffer from tephra falls.^ By answering as fast as I could, my quick response at least neutralized his head start advantage before it could get much momentum.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ I had expected at least some damage, but to my surprise, there were absolutely no negative consequences or fall-out from the email hatchet job.

• Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.ssqq.com [Source type: Original source]

^ From what I've seen ( not as much as you it sounds but I've kept my hand in, as it were ) the success rate is about the same too.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

Because of prevailing winds, towns to the south and east of the volcano are most at risk from this, and it is assumed that tephra accumulation exceeding 100 kg/m² – at which point people are at risk from collapsing roofs – may extend out as far as Avellino to the east or Salerno to the south east. Towards Naples, to the north west, this tephra fall hazard is assumed to extend barely past the slopes of the volcano.^[41] The specific areas actually affected by the ash cloud will depend upon the particular circumstances surrounding the eruption.^[43]

The area around the volcano is now densely populated.

The plan assumes between two weeks and 20 days ^[44][45] notice of an eruption and foresees the emergency evacuation of 600,000 people, almost entirely comprising all those living in the zona rossa ("red zone"), i.e. at greatest risk from pyroclastic flows. The evacuation, by trains, ferries, cars, and buses is planned to take about seven days, and the evacuees will mostly be sent to other parts of the country rather than to safe areas in the local Campania region, and may have to stay away for several months. .However the dilemma that would face those implementing the plan is when to start this massive evacuation, since if it is left too late then many people could be killed, whilst if it is started too early then the precursors of the eruption may turn out to have been a false alarm.^ It is unclear how many people were killed in the aftermath of the eruption.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ On May 5, 1902, twenty people were killed as a result of these emissions.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Figure out who lives in the danger zones in Naples, and why the "evacuation plan" is a sad joke.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

.In 1984, 40,000 people were evacuated from the Campi Flegrei area, another volcanic complex near Naples, but no eruption occurred.^ In the aftermath of Krakatoa’s eruption, 165 villages were destroyed and nearly 37,000 people died.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Government officials as well as people living in the danger zones must be willing to evacuate the area when the scientists give their warnings.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^ Many people were evacuated from the areas surrounding the volcano when she began to demonstrate activity.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[45]

.Ongoing efforts are being made to reduce the population living in the red zone, by demolishing illegally constructed buildings, establishing a national park around the upper flanks of the volcano to prevent the erection of further buildings^[45] and by offering financial incentives to people for moving away.^ And like a number of other countries corrupt builders and regulatory bodies have resulted in buildings not being constructed accordingly.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ Greece, like many countries in quake zones has building codes that require buildings to be constructed to provide reasonable levels of safety in the event of one.

• Seeing is believing at Vesuvius | Art and design | guardian.co.uk 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.guardian.co.uk [Source type: General]

^ This informative text provides very in depth information about volcanoes that are found in America’s national parks.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

The underlying goal is to reduce the time needed to evacuate the area, over the next 20 or 30 years, to two or three days.^[46]

.The volcano is closely monitored by the Osservatorio Vesuvio in Naples with extensive networks of seismic and gravimetric stations, a combination of a GPS-based geodetic array and satellite-based synthetic aperture radar^[47] to measure ground movement, and by local surveys and chemical analyses of gases emitted from fumaroles.^ The volcanologists use a combination of ground instruments and space satellites to measure the movement of materials in the volcano.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

All of this is intended to track magma rising underneath the volcano. .So far, no magma has been detected within 10 km of the surface, and so the volcano was, in 2001, at worst only in the very early stages of preparing for an eruption.^ Coulomb stress change on fault A (dipping NE) caused by a 0.1 km 3 eruption from a 10-km-deep magma reservoir, as a function of the magma body geometry.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

^ During periods in which the conduit is open, the magma reservoir replenishes within 1-2 decades after the preceding eruption.

• Nostro et al: Vesuvius eruptions and southern Apennine earthquakes 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC quake.wr.usgs.gov [Source type: Academic]

^ One or more vents allow the magma to rise to the surface where it escapes through the volcano’s mouth.

• Volcanoes and Their Impact on Humans 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC hti.math.uh.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]

^[41] This status has apparently not changed much to date.^[48]

Vesuvius today

Inside the crater of Vesuvius

The area around Vesuvius was officially declared a national park on 5 June 1995.^[49] The summit of Vesuvius is open to visitors and there is a small network of paths around the mountain that are maintained by the park authorities on weekends.

There is access by road to within 200 metres (660 ft) of the summit (measured vertically), but thereafter access is on foot only. There is a spiral walkway around the mountain from the road to the crater.

See also

• List of volcanoes in Italy
• List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
• Norman Lewis, Naples '44 ISBN 0-907871-72-0

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "Summary of the eruptive history of Mt. Vesuvius". Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. http://www.ov.ingv.it/inglese/vesuvio/storia/storia.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
2. ^ "The Pomici Di Base Eruption". Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. http://www.ov.ingv.it/inglese/vesuvio/storia/pomici_base.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
3. ^ Vesuvius, Italy, Volcano World
4. ^ The world's top volcanoes, Scentia
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Vesuvius". Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-02=. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
6. ^ "Definition of somma volcano". Volcano Live. http://www.volcanolive.com/somma.html. Retrieved 2006-12-11. 
7. ^ Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16.
8. ^ Garrett, Roger A. (April 2005). "Vesuvius’ next eruption". Geotimes. doi:10.1002/9780470750865. http://www.geotimes.org/apr05/NN_Vesuvius.html. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
9. ^ ^{a b} "Somma-Vesuvius". Department of Physics, University of Rome. http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/vesuvio/vesuviustext.html. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
10. ^ "An ancient Bronze Age village (3500 bp) destroyed by the pumice eruption in Avellino (Nola-Campania)". http://www.meridies-nola.org/nola/villaggiopreistoricoing.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08.  "Vesuvius' Next Eruption May Put Metro Naples at Risk - Lesson from Katrina is need to focus on "maximum probable hazard"". State University of New York. http://www.buffalo.edu/news/fast-execute.cgi/article-page.html?article=78030009. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
11. ^ "Pomici di Avellino eruption". Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. http://www.ov.ingv.it/inglese/vesuvio/storia/avellino.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
12. ^ Stothers, R.B. (2002). "The case for an eruption of Vesuvius in 217 BC (abstract)". Ancient Hist. Bull. 16: 182–185. doi:10.1002/9780470750865. 
13. ^ ^{a b} de Boer, Jelle Zeilinga & Sanders, Donald Theodore (2002). Volcanoes in Human History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05081-3. 
14. ^ Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S., H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.) (translation)
15. ^ Strabo: Geography Book V Chapter 4 (translation)
16. ^ Marcus Vitruvius Pollio: de Architectura, Book II (translation)
17. ^ Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii
18. ^ ^{a b} "Visiting Pompeii - AD 79 - Vesuvius explodes". Current Archeology. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
19. ^ "Three Decades of Seismic Activity at Mt. Vesuvius: 1972–2000". 
20. ^ The Life of Nero, Suetonius, The Lives of the Caesars
21. ^ The Annals by Publius Cornelius Tacitus - Book 15
22. ^ Pompeii at the Minnesota State University E-museum
23. ^ Area Vesuvio (in Italian) Retrieved on 18 August 2007
    Account of 1785 eruption by Hester Thrale
    Stromboli Online - Vesuvius & Campi Flegrei
    Visiting Pompeii Retrieved on 18 August 2007
    Wall painting of Vesuvius found in Pompeii
24. ^ ^{a b} "The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD". Eyewitness to History. http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
25. ^ Haraldur Sigurdsson, Stanford Cashdollar and Stephen R. J. Sparks, "The eruption The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence" American Journal of Archaeology '86.1 (January 1982), pp. 39-51.
26. ^ 52 Minute MP3 Audio Discussion on the Theological significance of AD79
    Erupt Project - Vesuvius
    Herculaneum: Destruction and Re-discovery
    Live Mount Vesuvius Webcams: from Casalnuovo, from Sorrento
    Official Vesuvius National Park website (in Italian) Retrieved on 18 August 2007
27. ^ Pliny the Younger: eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, AD 79 and The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD, Translation of Pliny's letters. Original
28. ^ Jules Janick, Purdue University (2002). "Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers". History of Horticulture. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture19/lec19.html. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
    "Derivation of the name "Plinian"". The Volcano Information Center. http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/pliny.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
29. ^ Mentioned in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, xx.7.2, and in a lost section of the work.
30. ^ Doug Criner. "Engineering of Pompeii". http://enginova.com/engineering_of_pompeii.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
31. ^ "Vesuvius, Italy". Volcano World. http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_vesuvius.html. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
32. ^ ^{a b} Lisetta Giacomelli, Annamaria Perrotta, Roberto Scandone, Claudio Scarpati (September 2003). "The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its impact on human environment in Pompei" (PDF). Episodes 26. doi:10.1002/9780470750865. http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/lavori/episodes.pdf. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
33. ^ "Pompeii, Stories from an eruption". The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/pompeii/herculaneum_2.asp. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
34. ^ Vesuvius National Park brochure (Adobe PDF)
    Vesuvius National Park
    Disaster preparedness page for the US Naval Support Actitivy Naples
    Guardian Newspaper article "Italy ready to pay to clear slopes of volcano"
    Tango Diva article - "Mount Vesuvius, the sleeping giant"
    Explore Italian Volcanoes, at Dipartimento di Fisica "E. Amaldi" Universita' Roma Tre, Italy
    Image of Vesuvius at Volcano World
    Top volcanoes worldwide (i.e. Famous and recent eruptions)
    BBC article discussing potential danger to modern inhabitants.
35. ^ Grete Stefani (October 2006). "La vera data dell'eruzione" (in Italian). Archeo (260): 10–14. http://www.capitoloprimo.it/archivio/2007_2008/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=572. Retrieved 2007-12-02. 
    Gabi Laske. "The A.D. 79 Eruption at Mt. Vesuvius". Lecture notes for UCSD-ERTH15: "Natural Disasters". http://quakeinfo.ucsd.edu/~gabi/erth15/lecture08/pliny.html. Retrieved 2007-07-20. 
36. ^ ^{a b} Aviation and the effects of Volcano Ash, Federal Aviation Authority
37. ^ Casper, Jack A. and Ver Keljik, Eds., 489th Bomb Squadron Book, 1947.
38. ^ "The eruption of Vesuvius of 1944". Vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it. http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/vesuvio/1944eng.html. Retrieved 2009-12-17. 
39. ^ "Mt. Vesuvius eruption, as seen from Naples, 1944". Digitallibrary.smu.edu. http://digitallibrary.smu.edu/cul/gir/ww2/mcsc/italy/pages/mcs115it.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-17. 
40. ^ "The Mount Vesuvius Eruption of March 1944". Warwingsart.com. http://www.warwingsart.com/12thAirForce/Vesuvius.html. Retrieved 2009-12-17. 
41. ^ ^{a b c} Kilburn, Chris & McGuire, Bill (2001). Italian Volcanoes. Terra Publishing. ISBN 1-903544-04-1. 
42. ^ "Activity of Vesuvio between 1631 and 1799". Explore Italian Volcanoes. http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/vesuvio/VESUVIO_1631-1944.html. Retrieved 2006-12-09. 
43. ^ "Emergency plan (Italian)". http://www.virtualtorre.com/servizi/vesuvio/piano/b1.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-09. 
44. ^ In the shadow of the volcano, UK Guardian newspaper, 16 October 2003
45. ^ ^{a b c} "Italians trying to prevent a modern Pompeii". USA Today. 21 October 2003. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-10-20-vesuvius-usat_x.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
46. ^ "Early Warning of Volcanic eruptions and Earthquakes in the neapolitan area, Campania Region, South Italy" (PDF). Second International Conference on Early Warning, Bonn, Germany, 16–18 October 2003. http://www.ewc2.org/upload/downloads/Gasparini2003AbstractEWC2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-01-26. 
47. ^ "ESA press release on satellite monitoring of Vesuvius". http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vw_news/vesuvius.html. Retrieved 2007-01-26. 
48. ^ "Monitoring of Mount Vesuvius". Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. http://www.ov.ingv.it/inglese/vesuvio/vesuvio.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
    "Present level of alert on Vesuvius". Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. http://www.ov.ingv.it/inglese/vesuvio/livelli.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-08. 
49. ^ Vesuvius portal website

External links

• Media related to Vesuvio at Wikimedia Commons
• SMU's Melvin C. Shaffer World War II Photographs contains 19 images of Mt. Vesuvius before, during and after eruption in 1944.
• Observations of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius by United States Army Air Force personnel based there in March of 1944

Major volcanoes of Italy Roman comagmatic region Vulsinian district · Ciminian district Campanian volcanic arc Mount Vesuvius · Campi Flegrei · Mount Epomeo · Mt. Etna · Ustica · Vulcano · Stromboli · Lipari

Decade Volcanoes Avachinsky · Colima · Etna · Galeras · Koryaksky · Mauna Loa · Merapi · Nyiragongo · Rainier · Sakurajima · Santamaría · Taal · Teide · Ulawun · Unzen · Vesuvius

Categories: Campanian volcanic arc | Volcanoes of Italy | Stratovolcanoes | Visitor attractions in Naples | Geography of Naples | Decade Volcanoes | Active volcanoes | VEI-5 volcanoes | VEI-6 volcanoes | Complex volcanoes | Mountains of Campania

Hidden categories: Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism | Wikipedia protected pages without expiry | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008

From Wikitravel

View over the Bay of Naples

Get in

By Public Transport

By Car

• By Foot: Afraid, no choice. Everyone has to walk up the last 500m steeply uphill. That includes busloads of German pensioners which on busy days will congest the path and give up half the way. Closed-in strong shoes are essential, as the path is dust and loose rock. .You probably want to get hold of one or two walking sticks provided.^ Have a Fantastic Foamalicious New Years & remember if you want amazing foam stick with the true foam experts!
  • Vesuvius on MySpace Music - Free Streaming MP3s, Pictures & Music Downloads 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.myspace.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ You will be charged a modest amount for them (one to two sestertia).
  • Walkthrough: Pompei/Timescape 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC justadventure.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Whichever ones they all want you to have a little different job Arianna.
  • Arianna Huffington: Why Visiting Pompeii Has Me Thinking About the Smoke Billowing Out of Our Economic Mt. Vesuvius 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.huffingtonpost.com [Source type: General]
  
  And there is a small entrance fee of €6.50(adults)/€4.50 (students).

.

Crater of Vesuvius

• The crater with its rising fumes.
• The different lava stones, changing colour as you walk uphill and around the crater.
• The view of the Bay of Naples and Pompeii in good weather.
• The scarred landscape where the 1950's lava streams went downhill.
• The remains of the funicular railway built in 1870, and which operated until the volcano's last major eruption in 1944. The song Funiculì, Funiculà was written by composer Peppino Turco, to commemorate the opening of the railway.
• All the other tourists.

• Dynamic Earth Adventures, (info@DynamicEarthAdventures.com), [2].^ This allows you to connect Naples to Pompeii, Herculaneum and Vesuvius.
  • Day trip to Naples: Vesuvius and Pompeii - IgoUgo Naples Journal 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.igougo.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ The last eruption of the mountain was in 1944.
  • Famous Mountains - Wiki Travel Guide - Travellerspoint 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.travellerspoint.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Vesuvius, with the option to walk to the summit of the crater.
  • Pompeii tour guide - Capri tour guides - Amalfi Coast tour guides 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.pompeii.org.uk [Source type: General]
  
  .An organization that arranges personalised tours to Vesuvius and Pompeii led by experienced tour guides and academics in the field.  edit
• bike excursions company, naples, (deconcilio1@gmail.com).^ Begin your tour with two exquisite nights in Naples where you’ll delight in a visit to the leisurely island of Capri and marvel at Pompeii .
  • Travel to Italy :: Perillo Tours - Since 1945 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.perillotours.com [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Mt Vesuvius and Pompeii Day Trip from Naples 118 reviews .
  • Mt Vesuvius Half-Day Trip from Naples 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.partner.viator.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Nine miles northwest of Pompeii, the seaside resort of Herculaneum experienced Vesuvius’ fury in a different way.
  • Resurrecting Pompeii | History & Archaeology | Smithsonian Magazine 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.smithsonianmag.com [Source type: General]
  
  .An organization that arranges personalised bike/trekking tours at Mount Vesuvius and bay of Naples (from easy to hard biking itineraries).  edit

• Make a photograph that looks like you are going to parachute down the mountain.
• Enjoy the natural beauty of this worldly wonder.

• Geological collection sets with rare original Vesuvius stones.^ Mount Vesuvius dominates the Bay of Naples.
  • Excursions to Capri Amalfi Ischia Procida Pompeii Hercolaneum Vesuvius 18 January 2010 11:33 UTC www.hotelantichemura.com [Source type: General]
  
  ^ Herculaneum was located on the shore of the Bay of Naples at the base of Mount Vesuvius.
  • Volcanic Case Histories 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.tulane.edu [Source type: FILTERED WITH BAYES]
  
  ^ Vesuvius looms menacingly over the Bay of Naples.
  • Attractions in Pompeii at Frommer's 10 January 2010 2:02 UTC www.frommers.com [Source type: General]
  
  These are spray painted fakes.
• Postcards with a helicopter view of the volcano (since you won't get into one to snap the shots yourself).
• Property on the lower slopes of Vesuvius is very attractively priced.
• Lacryma Christi wine is produced from grapes grown on the lower slopes of the volcano.

• While there are no pubs or restaurants, there are several small shops up the last 500m or so to the crater and you can pick up snacks and a cool drink here but don't expect any meals, come well prepared!

• The nearest place to reside is Naples or perhaps Sorrento.

Stay safe

• Combine the trip to Vesuvius with visiting Herculaneum or Pompeii afterwards to make more of the day.